AIR UNIVERSITY

Fall-2020
Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences
Department of physics

Lecture-7
PARMAGNETISM

Classical Theory of Paramagnetic:

Langevin,s Theory 1905: (10 Years after curie law)
Effect of temperature Paramagnetic
Quantitative Analysis
PARAMAGNETISM
Paramagnetic substances are those in which each atom or
molecule has a net non-zero magnetic moment of its own.

 In some solids, atoms possess permanent dipole moments

 Dipoles align with external field
 Enhances external field
 Increases μr
 Random orientation, χ decreases with temperature.
M = χH
o With net magnetic moment in an atom, ion or molecule.
o Very large fields are needed to align all the moments and therefore the
susceptibility is very small and positive.
i.e. χ = 10-3 – 10-6
o When a paramagnetic material is placed near a magnet, it will be
attracted to the region of greater magnetic field like a ferromagnetic
material. The difference is that the attraction is weak.
o It is exhibited by materials containing transition elements, rare
elements and actinide elements. Liquid oxygen and aluminum (Al)
are paramagnetic materials.
 Classical Theory of Paramagnetic:
i. Measurement of susceptibility: (Curie Law 1895)
The first systematic measurement of χ of a large number of substances
over an extended range of temperature was made by Pierre curie in
1895.
“He found that mass susceptibility χm was independent of
temperature for diamagnetic substances but χm varied inversely
with absolute temperature for paramagnetic substances”.
Mathematically,
1 C
χm α T => χm = T

Also called curie law.

Where “C” is the curie constant
 More General Form of Curie Law
C C
χm = T −θ = T +θ Curie- Weiss Law

θ is a constant for any one substance and equal to zero for those
substances which obey Curie’s law.

Langevin,s Theory 1905: (10 Years after curie law)

He assumed a paramagnetic to consist of atoms, or molecules, each of
which has the same net magnetic moment m, because all the spin and
orbital moments of the electrons do not cancel out.

In the absence of an applied field:

The atomic moments point at random and cancel one another, so that
the magnetization of the specimen is zero M=0
In the presence of an applied field:
Each atomic moment turn towards the direction of the field.
a) Effect of opposing forces:
I. If no opposing force acts, complete alignment of the atomic moments
would be produced and the specimen as a whole would acquire a very
large atomic moment, But
II. The thermal agitation of the atoms opposes this tendency and tends to
keep the atomic moments pointed at random.
III. The result is the partial alignment and small positive χ
b) Effect of temperature Paramagnetic:
As temperature increases, the randomizing effect of thermal agitation
increases and hence susceptibility decrease.
This theory leads naturally into the theory of Ferromagnetism.
Quantitative Analysis
Mathematical expression
Let n = no. of atoms per unit volume of material
= Each atom have magnetic moment µ
= The direction of each moment is represented by a vector
= All the vectors be drawn through the center of a sphere (R=1)
dn = number of moments/atoms inclined at an angle between θ
and θ + dθ to the field H.
In the absence of field:
In the absence of a field, the number of µ vectors
passing through unit area of the sphere surface is
the same at any point on the sphere surface and
therefore
dn α dA
Where dA = 2π RSin θ dθ
For a sphere of R = 1
dA = 2πSin θ dθ
In the presence of field:
All µ vectors shift towards the direction of the field.
Each atomic moment then have a certain Potential Energy Ep,

Ep = - µ0.H = - µ0 H cos θ
In state of thermal equilibrium at temperature T,

The
Boltzmann factor
[ Probability of an atom
havingenergy E P ] α [ e
− EP
kBT ]
Where KB = Boltzmann constant

[ TheBetween
number of moments
θ∧θ+dθ ]
α [ dA ] [ Boltzmann factor ]

dn α dA − EP
e kBT

dn = k dA e
− EP
kBT ____________

(ii)
Substituting the values of
dA and EP
µHCosθ
dn =( k) (2π Sin θ dθ) e kBT ____________ (iii)
µHCosθ
dn = 2πk e kBT Sin θ dθ ____________ (iii)
Where k = proportionality constant
= It can be calculated by using the following fact
 π

∫ dn=n (Total amount)

0

Substituting dn from eq (iii)

π µHCosθ

2πk ∫e kBT
sin θ dθ=n
0

µH
For brevity we put kT =a
π

2πk ∫ ea cos θ sin θ dθ=n ____________ (iv)

0

The total magnetic moment

[ ]
π
¿ thedirection of the field acquired = ∫ (number of atoms dn) (µ Cos θ of each
by unit volume 0

atom)

M = ∫ dn(µ cos θ)
0

M = ∫ ( µ cos θ ) dn
0

Now substituting the value from eq (iii)

π

M = ∫ (2 πk e a cos θ sin θ dθ)(µ cos θ)

0

M = 2 πµk ∫ (e a cos θ sin θ cos θ dθ)

0

M = ( µcos θ ) 2 πk ∫ (e a cos θ sin θ dθ)

0

Now using eq (iv)

M = nµ Cos θ ____________ (v)
This equation can also be written in simple form
 π

∫ e a cosθ sin θ dθ
0
M = nµ Cos θ π

∫ e a cosθ sin θ dθ
0

∫ e a cosθ sin θ cos θ dθ

0
M = nµ π

∫ e a cos θ sinθ dθ
0

Let For limit

X= Cos θ θ = 0, x=1
dx = -Sin θ dθ θ = π, x = -1
−1

∫ e ax x (−dx )
1
M = nµ −1

∫ e ax (−dx)
1

−1

∫ e ax x (dx)
1
M = nµ −1

∫ e ax ( dx)
1

ea + e−a 1
M = nµ [ −
ea −e−a a ]
1
M = nµ [ coth(a)−
a ]
Where
nµ = maximum possible moment possessed by the material
= It corresponds to perfect alignment of all the atomic magnets
parallel to the field, which is a complete state of saturation.
 1
M = M0 [ coth (a)−
a ]
M 1
M0
= [ coth(a)−
a ]
M
M0 = L (a) = Langevin function

Where
a a3 2 a5
L (a) = − +
3 45 945
…………

µH
This equation is valid only for a < 1, a = 1 where a = kT

Special Cases
i. When a < 0.5 then
1 a
L (a) = ( 3 )a =3 and
1
L (a) as a function of “a” is a straight line with slope of 3

ii. When a >> very very large then L (a) = 1

Two conclusions
1. Saturation will occur at large “a” employing that at large H or low
T alignment tendency of the field is going to overcome the
randomizing effect of thermal agitation at large H or low T.
2. At small a, L (a) depends linearly on “a” employing that M varies
linearly with H.

I = ∫ x e ax (dx)
 e ax e ax
= x
a
−∫
a
.1 dx

1
1 ax 1 e ax
= | a
xe −
a a |
-1

= ( 1a (−1) e − a1 e ) - ( 1a e − a1 e )
−a
2
−a a
2
a

−1 1 1 1
= e ( a − a )- e ( a − a )
−a a
2 2

1
= -a (e + ea)
−a

Langevin Theory and Curie Law

The Langevin theory of paramagnetisim also leads to the Curie-law
Consider the equation

M = nµ (coth (a)− 1a )
M = nµ L (a)
a
For small a L (a) = 3
a
M = nµ ( 3 ) (1)

M= ( nµ3 ) µH
kT where a=
µH
kT (2

Therefore susceptibility is defined as

M nHµ2 nµ2
Χv = H =
3 kTH =
3 kT
(3)
c
Χv = T

Also the mass susceptibility is written as

 Χv nHµ2
Χm = ρ = 3 kTH

Where ρ= density
Nρ
n= A
= number of atoms per unit volume

Where N = number of atoms/mol =Avogadro’s number

A = Atomic weight
From eq (3)
Χv c
Χm = ρ = ρt