+++design of Hydropower Plants 2014

NOTES ON the HYDRAULICS OF HYDROPOWER PLANTS
Prof. Marco Pilotti

Facoltà di Ingegneria,
Università degli Studi di
Brescia
HYDROPOWER PLANTS: basic references
Main reference about hydropower topics:

• Guide on how to develop a small hydropower plant, ESHA, 2004
(but MANY ERRORS IN THE EQUATIONS !!!)
Some genaral reference regarding hydraulics

• F.H. White, "Fluid Mechanics", MacGraw-Hill Inc. USA
• V.L. Streeter and E.B. Wylie, Hydraulic Transients, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York 1967
• V.T. Chow, Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York 1959
Journals on the topic

• Water Power and Dam construction
• Power Technology and Engineering (formerly Hydrotechnical Construction), Springer, DOI:
10.1007/BF02406938
Organization
• ESHA
• UNIPEDE (International Union of Producers and Distributors of Electricity). Pahes
Web pages with interesting papers
• http://web.me.com/bryanleyland/Site_3/Welcome.html
• Lessons learned from the design, construction and operation of hydroelectric facilities, ASCE -
HYDROPOWER COMMITTEE - New-York, 1994
M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

LARGE HYDROPOWER PLANTS: the area around Adamello glacier
Reservoirs and Hydro Power exploitation in Valle Camonica

LARGE HYDROPOWER PLANTS: the area around Adamello glacier
San Fiorano

LARGE HYDROPOWER PLANTS: energy from water - reservoirs
How to retrieve this energy ?

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: energy from water - run of river power plants
How to retrieve this energy ?

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: steady state
Pressure Flow: exercise 1
Calculate, using the Moody chart, the friction loss in a 2.112 m diameter welded steel pipe along a length of 2189 m,
conveying a flow of 22.5 m3/s at 20 °C (Data taken from S. Fiorano plant, max. Q per penstock)
D := 2.112 m;
Q := 22.5 m3/s;
36 7
L := 2189 m; 34
U := Q/A(d) = 6.42 m/s; 32
Re := U*d/ν =13430041;
6
30
ε = 0.6*0.001 m; (n = 0.012sm-1/3); 28
26 5
J = 0.015; 24
∆H := J*L = 32.3 m; 22
∆H /1418=0.023 20
4
U [m/s]
H [m]
18
16
If Q = 6.75, ∆H := J*L = 2.93 m; ∆H /1418=0.0021
3
14
12
10 2
8
6
1
4
2
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Q [mc/s]

SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Run of River High Head scheme - Gaver
forebay
stream
Low slope channel
weir
Pressure pipe or
penstock
intake
Ecological
flow release Power house

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Low Head run-of-river, with a channel - Prevalle

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Low Head run-of-river, with a channel: Grattacasolo

LARGE HYDROPOWER PLANTS: pumped storage plant of San Fiorano
Penstocks (condotte forzate)
Reservoir or natural lake
Tunnel
(galleria)
dam
Powerhouse
(centrale)
surge chamber
(pozzo piezometrico)

LARGE HYDROPOWER PLANTS: pumped storage plant of San Fiorano
surge chamber
penstock
powerhouse

LARGE HYDROPOWER PLANTS: pumped storage plant of Edolo


5 stages
reversible pump turbine
Head :1211-1290 m;
Q: 9.16-10.35 mc/s;
P: 140 MW

Optimizing the production of a power plant with reservoir: when D is given, which Q will maximize the power ?
Let us suppose that the discharge Q in the penstock is controlled downstream through a valve.
Let us suppose that λ is constant.
Let us compute the power available at the penstock outlet

P = γQH o 
  Q2L 
 P = γQ Yu − λ 
2 
 2 gD A 
Q2L 
H o = Yu − LJ = Yu − λ 
2 gD A 2 
dP λQ 2 L Yu
= 0 → Yu = 3 ; LJ =
dQ 2 gD A 2 3
•Depending on the type of turbine, H0 can be totally converted into kinetic energy (turbina ad azione) or partitioned
between pressure related energy and kinetic energy (turbina a reazione)
•However, in S.Fiorano, the turbine max output is MW 2x140 = 280, with Q =22.5 cm/s. Accordingly the operative
condition (LJ = 35 m; 2.5% of 1418 m !) is far away from the theoretical condition (LJ = 472 m !). The same happens
in other hydropower plants where LJ is usually below 10%. Why ?
•A first hydraulic observation could be that in S.Fiorano, due to the plant layout, such an high Q would imply
underpressures in the penstock, but this is not a general explanation for other cases.

Optimizing the production of a power plant with reservoir: when D is given, which Q would maximize the power ?
Hydraulics of each S.Fiorano penstock - situation for actual maximum Q
D ε ε/ D A L Q U Re λ alt.cin J JL
2 2.13 0.001 0.000469484 3.563272928 2198 22.5 6.314 13316548 0.01651 2.0329 0.0158 34.644
Power available at the outlet of each penstock 305.22 MW
Hydraulics of each S.Fiorano penstock if power were maximized

deltaZ 1418
D ε ε/ D A L Q U Re λ alt.cin J JL
1 2.13 0.001 0.000469484 3.563272928 2198 83.2 23.35 49253530 0.01647 27.811 0.215 472.67
Power available at the outlet of each penstock 771.44 MW
Time to empty Lake Arno reservoir with the 2 options

Volume 38000000 mc
t1 234.5679012 h
t2 63.4195091 h
Overall energy produced with the 2 options
E_t1 143188 MWh
E_t2 97849 MWh

Optimizing the production of a run of river power plant: when Q is given, which D will maximize the power ?
Without an economic constraint, the trivial solution to this question is D = ∞

P = γQ H o 
  Q2 
 P = γQ Yu − λ 
2 
 2 gDA 
Q2 
H o = Yu − LJ = Yu − λ 
2 gDA 2 
dP
= 0 → P = γQ Yu ; D = ∞
dD
However, the energy produced tends to saturate and the cost per unit length of a pipe grows
L := 2189 m; ε = 0.6*0.001 m;
with D. For simplicity’s sake we can make the hypothesis Yu=1418 m Q = 22.5 cm/s;
( )
yearly production for 1000 hours of
C = L ω0 + ω1 D 2
both the amount of material needed
peak functioning as a
to produce the pipe and the volume
function of D
of the trench rise with D2
Other constraints for D comes from:
•upper constraint: resistence to pressure in steady state condition (e.g., Mariotte’s equation) s = pD / 2σ
•Lower constraint: constraint on max V, according to water hammer theory

Depending on the type of turbine, H0 can be totally converted into kinetic energy or partitioned between pressure
related energy and kinetic energy.
In a Pelton turbine, used in most high head run of river plants, H0 is totally converted into kinetic energy. In the range
of variation of Q, V is slightly affected by the adjustable noozle regulation.
Considering S. Fiorano:
Yu -JL <H0 <Yu
1385.7 m <H0 <1418 m
Vmax ≅ 0.98 2 gYu = 163 m / s

Vmin ≅ 0.98 2 gH 0 = 161 m / s
The nozzle (iniettore) area, a, at full opening condition is set on the basis of the maximum discharge
Yu -JL = (1+0.03)V2/(2g) = (1+0.03) (Q/Cca)2/(2g)

Cca = Q/ [(1+0.03)2g(Yu -JL)]0.5
Where a noozle head loss of 0.03V2/(2g) has been considered

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: water diversion and storage
• Depending on the availability of the resource and the purpose of the exploitation, different
water capturing structures may be present
Type of structure example purpose

Dam +reservoir (e.g. San Fiorano) Long-medium term storage
Water retention pond

Weir + Water retention pond (e.g., Saviore) Short term storage
Weir Improving water diversion, e.g, by

rising water level at the intake
• In all this cases spillways (sfioratori, luci) are present in order to controll overflow (dams)
and guarantee unaltered tailwater levels during floods.
• The weir in itself can be regarded as a spillway so that the two terms are often
interchangeable.
• Often spillways have mobile devices (gated spillways) by which they can actively control
the water level upstream.
• with the exception of the simplest cases, the stage - discharge relationship should be
determined experimentally or by a physical models

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Weir - Spillways
Weir / Spillways
Sarnico dam Gavardo: spillways

with flat with flat gates
gates as partly open to
spillways release ecological
flow

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: flashboards and inflatable weir
Flashboards: Extremely simple dynamic regulation with
respect to the original weir crest, in order to increase water
depth on the intake
To be removed by hands during floods (a very difficult task)
On the right: flashboards used in Gavardo to prevent
backwater during floods
Inflatable weir: a simple and economic proxy,

particularly when the water raise is limited and
the span considerable.
A 2 m high weir, 30 m wide, can be deflated in
less than 1/2 hour that is a short time (but not so
short to cause a dam break wave)

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Intakes (opere di presa)
Purpose: to divert the required amount of water into a power canal or into a penstock
Constraint: minimum possible head losses and environmental impact. Sometimes a fish ladder is required; always
an ecological-flow release device.
Challenges: handling debris and sediment transport. Minimize the effects of ice formation
Position: The best disposition of the intake is with the screen at right angles to the spillway so that the flow pushes
away the debris. If sediment transport is present, the intake should not be located in an area of still water as well as
on a river bend, in order to prevent sedimentation related problems.
Additional equipment:the intake should be equipped with a trashrack and a settling basin where the flow velocity is
reduced, to remove all particles over 0.2 mm (when possible). There must be a sluicing system to flush the
deposited silt, sand, gravel and pebbles with a minimum of water loss; and a spillway to divert the excess water with
respect to the maximum discharge that can be handled downstream.
Types of intakes
Power intake: supplies water directly to the turbine via a penstock. These intakes
are usually encountered in lakes and reservoirs, i.e., where sediment and debris are not a problem
Conveyance intake (lateral, frontal and drop intakes) The intake supplies water to other waterways (power canal,
flume, tunnel, etc.) that usually end in a power intake.These are most frequently encountered along waterways and
generally transfer the water as free surface flow.

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Power Intakes
Power intake:
Only for lakes and

reservoir
It is important to
prevent the risk of
vortex formation
at their entrance
and thus the
formation of air
pockets within the
flow

SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Conveyance Intake
Lateral intake

Lateral intake

Drop (tyrolean) intake
Design parameter: wetted rack
length, as a function of the specific
discharge, inclination of the rack
and width of the bar-gaps
Noseda suggested to compute the

wetted rack length on a constant
energy head basis:
H
L = 1.185 0
mµ
µ is the discharge coefficient of the
rack which is dependent on the
shape of the cross section of the
bar, m is the void ratio .This
equation neglects the inclination of
the rack and thus it is only valid for
horizontal racks.
For a discussion of different design formulas, look

for paper by Drobir et al. on the website

SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Run of River High Head scheme - Saviore

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Fish ladders
Saviore
dell’Adamello
(1)
Saviore
dell’Adamello
(2)

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: sediment settling chambers (sghiaiatori/dissabbiatori)
πD 3 1 wD πD 2 2
= g (ρ s − ρ )
dw
m − ρC D ( ) w
dt 6 2 υ 4
8 g (ρ s − ρ ) wD 2
D = CD ( )w
6 ρ υ
D and Q are given;
L and U are design
parameters to be found,
as a function of w;
w is found by solving
the equation above.
The problem is water

turbulence that must be
controlled and reduced

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: sediment settling

SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Hydraulic works
Upstream pond (forebay - vasca di carico)
Electricity prices at peak hours can be substantially higher than in off-peak hours, hence the interest in providing an
extended pound, large enough to store the water necessary to operate, at maximum during peak hours. To evaluate
this volume:
QR = river flow (m3/s);

Qr = available river flow = river flow – QDMV (m3/s);
QP = flow needed to operate in peak hours (m3/s)
QOP = flow needed to operate in off-peak hours (m3/s)
tP = daily peak hours
tOP = daily off-peak hours (24 - tP)
The volume for a daily pond is given by V:
V = 3600t p (Q p − Qr )
Provided that this volume must be refilled in off-peak hours, we have the constraint:
3600top (Qr − Qop ) ≥ 3600t p (Q p − Qr )  top  top


Qp ≤ 1 + Q − Qop
 t  r t
 p  p

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Head losses
Head losses
In the design of small hydro plants care must be taken to minimise head losses because they can be of great importance
to the feasibility of the project. For large plants, although small in relative terms, can be economically very significative.
Accordingly in any case care must be taken in order to:
· minimise flow separation
· distribute flow uniformly on the cross section
· suppress vortex generation
· choose an appropriate trashrack design
Rule of thumb: at the trashrack 0.8 < U < 1 m/s (this dictates
the dimensions of the rectangular section upstream).
In the penstock 3 < U < 5 m/s (this dictates the penstock
diameter).
For a well designed low head intake structure like the one
on the right the head loss can be as low as
U2
∆H = 0.19
2g
where U is the velocity in the penstock

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: … and Vortex formation
It is very important to prevent air entrance into the penstock.
In order to prevent this from happening, a mimimum submergence ht at the penstock entrance must be
guaranteed. According to Knauss:
ht ≥ D [1+2,3U(g D)0,5]
Where D is the penstock diameter in m, U the velocity within it and g the acceleration due to gravity.
Alternatively
ht ≥ 1,474 U 0,48 D 0,76 [Rohan]
ht ≥ c U D0,50 [Gordon]
Where c is a factor that takes into account the simmetry of the approaching flow
c=0,7245 for asymettric flow
c=0,5434 for symmetric flow
For instance: D= 600 mm; Q= 0,75 m3/s; U =2,66 m/s:

Knauss 2,57 m
Rohan 2,00 m
Gordon 1,75 m

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: trash rack
A screen is nearly always required at the entrance
of both pressure pipes and intakes to avoid the
entrance of floating debris. The flow of water
through the rack also gives rise to a head loss.
Though usually small, it must be included into the
calculation.
The maximum possible spacing between the bars is

generally specified by the turbine manufacturers. Typical
values are 20-30 mm for Pelton turbines, 40-50 mm for
Francis turbines and 80-100 mm for Kaplan turbines.

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: trash rack and head losses
According to experience the velocity V at the entrance of the rack should be between 0.25 m/s and 1.0
m/s. In order to obtain this velocity, the required trash rack area S is estimated by the formula derived by the continuity
equation
b
K1( Vsen( α ))φS = Q ; φ=
b+t
where S is the area of the trash rack in m2, t the bar thickness, b the distance between bars, Q the
discharge (m3/s) and K1 is a trash cleaning coefficient which, if the trash rack
has an automatic cleaner, is equal to 0.80. α = angle of bar inclination (°).
The head loss caused by the trash rack can be calculated by a formula developed by Kirschmer:
4/3
t V 2 
∆H = K S     sen(α )
b  2g 
Where Ks = screen loss coefficient (see on the right)
For instance:
Let us consider a trash rack inclined 60° with the horizontal,
made of stainless steel flat bars 12 mm thick and the width
between bars is 70 mm. Q is 3 m3/s
First we estimate the area S; if we ask for V = 1 m/s, we get S = 5.07 m2; rounding to 6 m2 we get V = 0.84 m/s. Accordingly,
if we use Ks = 2.4 we get ∆h := 0.007 m.

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: trash rack and head losses - sudden contraction/expansion
If the grill is not perpendicular but makes an angle β with the water flow (β will have a maximum value of 90° for a grill
located in the sidewall of a canal), there will be an additional head loss. The result of previous head loss should be
multiplied by a correction factor provided in the following table (according to Mosonyi)
Sudden Contraction in the transition between two pipes where d downstream < D upstream
 d 2  V22 d
∆H = 0.421 − 2  < 0.76
 D  2g D
Sudden Expansion in the transition between two pipes (Borda’s loss; where D downstream > d upstream)
2
V22  D22 
∆H =
1
(V1 − V2 ) =  2 − 1
2
2g 2 g  d1 
HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Head loss in a bend
ε V
2
r
∆H = ξ ( , θ , )
D D 2g
In a bend, pipe flow experiences increase of
pressure along the outer wall and a decrease
of pressure along the inner wall. This
pressure unbalance causes a secondary
current. Both movements together - the
longitudinal flow and the secondary current -
produces a spiral flow that, at a length of
around 100 diameters, is dissipated by
viscous friction. The head loss produced in
these circumstances depends on the radius of
the bend and on the diameter of the pipe.
Furthermore, in view of the secondary
circulation, there is a secondary friction loss,
dependent of the relative roughness e/D.
The problem is extremely complex when

successive bends are placed one after
another, close enough to prevent the
flow from becoming stabilized (Re = 106)
HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Head loss in valves
V2
∆H = k
2g
Valves or gates are used in small

hydro schemes to isolate a
component from the rest, so they
are either entirely closed or
entirely open. Flow regulation is
assigned to the distributor vanes
or to the needle valves of the
turbine. The loss of head
produced by water flowing
through an open valve
depends of the type and
manufacture of the valve. Figure
on the right shows the value of
Kv for different kind of valves and
different opening retios.

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: exercises of hydraulics
Considering a small hydropower scheme, the nominal discharge is 3 m3/s and the gross head 85 m. The penstock is 1.5 m
diameter in the first length and 1.2 m in the second one, with ε =0. The radius of curvature of the bend is four times the
diameter of the pipe. At the entrance of the intake there is a trash rack inclined 60° with the horizontal. The rack is made of
stainless steel flat bars, 12 mm thick and the width between bars is 70 mm. Estimate the total head loss

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: exercises of hydraulics
Z3 20 1.0985
pipe
D ε ε/ D A L L/D Q U Re λ U 2 /(2g) J JL
[m]
1.5 0.0005 0.000333 1.767146 108 72 3 1.698 2521266 0.01561 0.146945 0.0015 0.1652
1.2 0.0005 0.000417 1.130973 65 54.17 3 2.653 3151583 0.01627 0.358752 0.0049 0.3162
Total 0.4813
Head loss in trashrack 0.007 m
pipe entrance 0.073 m
I bend (ξ=0.06) 0.009 m
D contraction 0.054 m
II bend (ξ=0.1) 0.036 m
III bend (ξ=0.13) 0.047 m
local head losses 0.226 m

Total losses 0.707 m
Gross head 85 m
Conclusions:
•The percentage head loss is reasonable and rather small (1% of the gross head)
•In relative terms, if the pipe length is small, local head losses may be significative
•For instance, supposing 7200 hours/year of functioning, the head loss at the trashrack implies an
yearly energy loss of 1483 kWh (9806*3*0.007/1000*7200) ≅ 190 euro/year (if 1kWh = 0.13 euro)

SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Pelton turbines
Hydraulic turbines
The purpose of a hydraulic turbine is to

transform the water potential energy to
mechanical rotational energy.
In the Pelton turbine the potential energy in

water is converted into kinetic energy before
entering the runner. Turbines that operate in
this way are called impulse (action)
turbines. (turbine ad azione)
The kinetic energy is in the form of a high-
speed jet that strikes the buckets, mounted on
the periphery of the runner. On each buckle
(cucchiaio), a splitter ridge (coltello) separates
the jet into two equal halves, which are
diverted sideways

SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Pelton turbines (after L. Pelton, 1880)
Pelton turbines are impulse turbines used for high heads from 50 m to more than 1 000 m. In this turbine one or
more jets impinge on a wheel carrying on its periphery a large number of buckets (cucchiai). Each jet issues water
through a nozzle (iniettore) with a needle valve to control the flow.
The axes of the nozzles are in the plan of the runner (girante). In case of an emergency stop of the turbine
(e.g. in case of load rejection), the jet may be diverted by a deflector (tegolo deviatore) so that it does not hit the
buckets and the runner cannot reach runaway speed. In this way the needle valve can be closed
very slowly, so that overpressure surge in the pipeline is kept to an acceptable level (max 1.15 static pressure).
As any kinetic energy leaving the runner is lost, the buckets are designed to keep exit velocities to a
minimum. One or two jet Pelton turbines can have horizontal or vertical axis. Three or more nozzles turbines
have vertical axis. The maximum number of nozzles is 6 (not usual in small hydro). The efficiency of a Pelton is
good from 30% to 100% of the maximum discharge for a one-jet turbine and from 10% to 100% for a multi-jet one.
CIMEGO Plant (110 MW, H 721 m, D=3.5m, n= 300gpm, d 0.31 m)

SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Pelton turbines (after L. Pelton, 1880)
2 main elements: nozzle and runner.
In the nozzle the pressure of the water is converted into velocity. The nozzle consists of a nose-piece which is fixed
to a pipe bend, and a needle which can be moved inside the pipe bend. The nose cone and nose piece, which are
subject to wear, are made out of high quality material and are easy to exchange.
The runner (photograph 1 ) is mostly a one piece steel

casting, containing 13 % chrome. The largest Pelton
wheels have a diameter of more than 5 m and weigh more
than 40000 kg. The wheel must be placed above the
tailrace water level, which means a loss of static head, but
avoids watering of the runner. The buckets are shaped in
such a way that the ridge in the middle divides the free jet
into two equal parts which are reversed by almost 180°
Buckets could break while rotating at high speed, creating
extremely dangerous situations.

Balance of Rotational momentum for a control volume
D r r r r r r r r r
( ∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ ρVdW ) = ∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ ρgdW + ∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ σ n dS
Dt W W S
∂ r r r r r r r r r r r r r r
( ∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ ρVdW ) − ∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ ( ρV )V ⋅ ndS = ∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ ρgdW + ∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ σ n dS
∂t W S W S
r r r r r r r r
− ∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ ( ρV )V ⋅ ndS = ∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ σ n dS
S S
Torque of Momentum Resistive Torque exerted by

of entering jets the generator shaft (at 4)
RρQV at position 1
r r r r r
∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ (ρV )V ⋅ ndS
S
Torque of Momentum Rρ
Q
[ωR − (V − ωR) cosϑ ]
of entering jets (at 1, 2
2
and 3) at position 2 and 3

M = RρQV − 2Rρ
Q
[ωR − (V − ωR) cosϑ ]
2
M = RρQ(V − ωR)(1 + cosϑ )
P = Mω = RρQ(V − ωR)(1 + cosϑ )ω
V V
ω1 = 0; ω2 = ; ωmax =
R 2R
nominal speed V2
Accordingly, if θ =0 Pmax = γQH = ρQ
2
V2 V2
Which actually corresponds to the power of the entering jet P = γQH = γQ = ρQ
2g 2
P V2
Which is, per unit weight: =
γQ 2 g
And to the exit velocity V V 
va = [ωmax R − (V − ωmax R)] =  − (V − ) = 0
r
2 2 
The runaway speed of a Pelton turbine is about 1.8 to 1.9 times the nominal speed. At runaway speed the
runner turns at almost the speed of the water jet, the water is no more able to transfer energy to the rotor.

ROADMAP for Pelton selection:
1) head and discharge are given, along with the type of turbine and the number of noozles (z). Increasing z
decreases the dynamic forces on the runner and aereodynamic resistence; it increases flexibility on Q
variations but it also increases complexity
πd 2 4q
Q , H , z → U = 2 gH → q = Q / z → q = U →d = → d n ≅ 1.25d
4 πU
2) The dimension B of the bucket and D of the runner are obtained by empirical rules of
thumb as in the diagrams below
B / d = f ( z ); D / d = f ( H ) → B, D
Other rules of thumb are 3d ≤ B ≤ 4d ; e ≅ 0.9d ; m ≅ 0.7 ÷ 0.8 B ; 8d ≤ D ≤ 20d ;

3) The number of buckets is: N = πD /( 2d ) and must be larger than 16

3) accordingly, one can obtain the optimal angular velocity and, from it, the number of rounds/minute (RPM) , n
U U 2π
ω= = →ω = n →n
2R D 60
4) And eventually one chooses the number of poles Zp on the generator
nZ p
50 =
60
That must be an integer value.
Note that ωD is a constant for a given head.
The desired value of ω can be obtained by changing the number of jets, that modify d and then B and D.
The desired D can be obtained by changing ω
Another possibility is not to run the turbine at the optimal speed. for a given D the speed of the runner may be
considerably different from the optimal speed, without having a too large influence on the efficiency of the
turbine and thus allowing the manufacturer to have a series of standardised sizes of diameters D.

Approximating efficiency curve for a Pelton turbine + efficiency curves for two turbines with nominal power
of 2800 and 740 kW
100
90
80
70 y = 0.0015x5 - 0.073x4 + 1.3669x3 - 12.527x2 + 57.137x - 16.643

R2 = 0.9968
Rendimento
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Frazioni della portata m assim a
The efficiency is high for a very wide range of discharge variation. However The efficiency of small Pelton turbines is
normally not as high as with larger turbines. In such a case, it is recommended to calculate the turbine parameters
with an efficiency of 0.70 to 0.85. This may result in an efficiency of 0.5 to 0.6 for an installation with an electrical
generator
SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS: range of application of micro-Pelton turbines
limit set by
dynamic and
hydraulic forces on
the buckets, torque
on the shaft
10 m, limit set by
small discharge and
power output, large
dimensions of
wheel and low ω
0,5lt/s, limit set by the small size of bucket

SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS: preliminary layout
Let us apply this procedure to the binary and ternary groups of San Fiorano plant
San Fiorano Micro-Idro plant

binary group f ternary group f f
Hnet 1403 Hnet 1403 Hnet 86 Hnet 86

Pmax 140000000 W Pmax 140000000 W P 10000 W P 10000 W
eta 0.9250938 eta 0.9250938 eta 0.6 eta 0.6
Q 11 mc/s Q 11 mc/s Q 0.01976 mc/s Q 0.019763 mc/s

U 160.93484 m/s 0.97 U 160.93484 m/s U 39.8447 m/s 0.97 U 39.84469 m/s 0.97
n. jets 3 z 4 n. jets z 1 z 2
discharge/jet, q 3.6666667 mc/s q 2.75 mc/s q 0.01976 m q 0.009882 m
jet diameter, d 0.17032 m d 0.1475015 m d 0.02513 d 0.01777
dn 0.2129 1.25 dn 0.1843768 1.25 dn 0.03141 1.25 dn 0.022212 1.25
width of the bucket, B 0.5501337 3.23 B 0.4764298 3.23 B 0.0779 3.1 B 0.056864 3.2
runner diameter D 3.0657606 18 D 2.5517756 17.3 D 0.25366 10.1 D 0.253659 14.27
number of buckets, z 28 z 27 z 15.8552 z 22.42263
couple of poles n 6.0 Zp 5.0
omega 52.494261 rad/s omega 63.067788 rad/s omega 157.08 rad/s omega 157.0796 rad/s
n 501 giri/minuto n 602 giri/minuto n 1500.0 giri/minuto n 1500 giri/minuto
Force on a bucket 147524 N 110643 N 197 N 98 N

15038 kg 11279 kg 20 kg 10 kg

SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS: San Fiorano Pelton turbines
noozle
counter-jet
deflector
(tegolo deviatore)

SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Layout of a typical high head plant
1 and 2 jets pelton wheels

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: low head run of river plant (Villanuova sul Clisi)
1 2
3 4
1) weir with flashboards 2) intake with flat gates as spillways

3) release of ecological flow 4) settling channel for cobbles and gravel, looking upstream

5 6
7 8
5) channel for cobbles and gravel settling, looking downstream 6) flat gates at junction between 6) and 8)
7) junction between 5) and 8). On the right the 2 sediment flushing gates 8) power channel to the powerhouse

9 10
11
9) Trashrack before the powerhouse 10) low head turbine

11) Tail channel

SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Francis turbines/Kaplan turbines
Francis Turbine
In reaction turbines the pressure of water
exerts a force on the face of the runner
blades, and pressure decreases as it
proceeds through the turbine.
The turbine casing or housing (called
“scroll”), with the runner fully immersed in
water, must be strong enough to withstand
the operating pressure. Francis and Kaplan
turbines belong to this category.
In the following we shall present some
fundamentals of the functioning of a Francis
turbine

SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS: Francis turbines

HYDROPOWER PLANTS: regulation of discharge
In a Pelton turbine
the discharge is
controlled through a
needle valve (spina
di regolazione o ago
doble) and sudden
shut down are
operated through a
deflector (tegolo
deviatore)
In a Francis turbin the discharge is

controlled by the distributor, that is
formed by a number of mobile
blades, that are arranged as a
concentrical ring around the
impeller. Its function is to distribute,
regulate or totally stop the water
flow that moves toward the runner.
Balance of Rotational momentum for a control volume encircling the runner (red circles below)
∂ r r r r r r r r r r r r r r
( ∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ ρVdW ) − ∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ ( ρV )V ⋅ ndS = ∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ ρgdW + ∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ σ n dS
∂t W S W S
r r r r r r r r
− ∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ ( ρV )V ⋅ ndS = ∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ σ n dS
S S
Torque of Momentum Resistive Torque exerted by

of entering jets the generator shaft on the
runner
r r r r r
∫ ( x − x0 ) ∧ (ρV )V ⋅ ndS
S
Torque of Momentum
of entering flow (at 1 and flowing out at 2)
M = ρQR1 ∧ V1 − ρQR2 ∧ V2
= ρQR1V1 cosα1 − ρQR2V2 cosα 2
P = Mω = ρQR1ωV1 cosα1 − ρQR2ωV2 cosα 2
= ρQ(u1V1 cosα1 − u2V2 cosα 2 )
Ideal situation: α1=0 (but Q=0 !) α2=90° which can be obtained only for
the nominal discharge by suitable shaping of the runner blades.
Approximating efficiency curve for a Francis turbine
The maximum efficiency is higher than the one of a Pelton turbine, but only for a very narrow range of discharges

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NOTES ON the HYDRAULICS OF HYDROPOWER PLANTS

Prof. Marco Pilotti

Main reference about hydropower topics:

Some genaral reference regarding hydraulics

Journals on the topic

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

How to retrieve this energy ?

How to retrieve this energy ?

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

Reservoir or natural lake

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

Power available at the outlet of each penstock 305.22 MW

Hydraulics of each S.Fiorano penstock if power were maximized

Time to empty Lake Arno reservoir with the 2 options

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

Vmax ≅ 0.98 2 gYu = 163 m / s

Yu -JL = (1+0.03)V2/(2g) = (1+0.03) (Q/Cca)2/(2g)

Where a noozle head loss of 0.03V2/(2g) has been considered

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

Type of structure example purpose

Water retention pond

Weir Improving water diversion, e.g, by

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

Sarnico dam Gavardo: spillways

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

Inflatable weir: a simple and economic proxy,

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

Only for lakes and

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

Noseda suggested to compute the

For a discussion of different design formulas, look

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

The problem is water

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

QR = river flow (m3/s);

The volume for a daily pond is given by V:

3600top (Qr − Qop ) ≥ 3600t p (Q p − Qr )  top  top

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

For instance: D= 600 mm; Q= 0,75 m3/s; U =2,66 m/s:

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

The maximum possible spacing between the bars is

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

M. Pilotti - lectures of Environmental Hydraulics

The problem is extremely complex when