Faculty of Civil & Environmental Engineering

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
BFC32403

CHAPTER 2
Water Supply
 Topics on Water Supply
(9 hours lecture)
2.1 Introduction 2.9 Raw water intake
2.2 Water Sources 2.10 Grit Removal System
2.3 National Water Services 2.11 Screening
Commission Act 2006
(Act 654) 2.12 Aeration
2.4 Malaysian Water Quality 2.13 Coagulation and
Index Flocculation
2.5 Malaysia : National 2.14 Softening
Guidelines for Raw 2.15 Sedimentation Tank /
Drinking Water Quality Settling Tank / Clarifier
2.6 Water Demand
2.16 Filtration
2.7 Engineered Water System
2.8 Surface Water Treatment
2.17 Disinfection
 2.1 Introduction
• Malaysia was reported to receive rainfall:
o 2420mm for Peninsular Malaysia,
o 2630mm for Sabah and
o 3830mm for Sarawak.

• Malaysia‘s water status are diverse, increase and competing

needs. However the future forecast ( done by SMHB Eng. Sdn
Bhd) indicated that water supply demand cannot be met in
many locations due to
 uneven rainfall distribution, temporally or spatially
 degradation in the raw water supply catchments, because of Un-control
opening of forested areas (logging, roads, urbanizations) resulting in
massive sedimentation flow into rivers
 Pollution in rivers as it passes urban areas, reaches between raw water
source catchment/storages & downstream water supply intake
 2.1 Introduction
In Malaysia, the worst water crisis happen in year 2014
(February to August) for Negeri Sembilan and Selangor
residents. The main reasons for the water crisis were due:
o Meteorological background (lack of rainfall in
catchment areas)
o Treatment plant shutdown (due to ammonia
contamination)
o Political deadlock in negotiations (between
government and SYABAS).
 2.2 Water Sources
There are two water sources used regularly:

Groundwater Surface water

(shallow wells, deep wells) (rivers, lake, reservoir)

 constant composition  variable composition

 high mineral content  low mineral content
 low turbidity  high turbidity
 low color  colored
 low or no D.O.  D.O. present
 high hardness  low hardness
 high Fe, Mn  taste and odor
2.3 National Water Services Commission
Act 2006 (Act 654)
• The National Water Services Act 2006 or the Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara
Act 2006 which came into effect on 1 February 2007 is enforced by the Ministry of
Energy, Water and Communication.
• This Act was enforced to establish a body known as the Suruhanjaya Perkihdmatan Air
Negara (SPAN), or the National Water Services Commission to regulate and enforce the
provisions of the Water Industry Services Act 2006 (Act 655) known as WSIA
• The Commission, which is fully functional since 1January 2008, is a central regulatory
agency to oversee adequate, clean and healthy water supply including the treated
water supply.
• The Commission shall have all the functions conferred on it under the water supply
and sewerage services laws and shall also have the following functions:
 to implement and enforce the water supply and sewerage services laws and to
recommend reforms to the water supply and sewerage services laws;
 to ensure the productivity of the water supply and sewerage services industry
and the monitoring of operators’ compliance with stipulated services standards,
contractual obligations and relevant laws and guidelines;
 to ensure national development goals pertaining to coverage, supply and access
to water supply services and sewerage services are achieved
2.3 National Water Services Commission
Act 2006 (Act 654)
• The Water Services Industry Act 2006 (WSIA) which came into force on 1 January 2008 is a
federal law and enacted to regulate water supply services and sewerage service industry.
• The WSIA is enacted for the following objectives:
 to ensure uniformity of law and policy to make a law for the proper control and
regulation of water supply services throughout Peninsular Malaysia and the Federal
Territories of Putrajaya and Labuan;
• Three main subsidiary legislation have been introduces in WSIA;
 Water Services Industry (Licensing) Regulations 2007
prescribes all matters relating to the issuance of individual licenses and registration of
class licenses granted under WSIA

 Water Services Industry (Permit) Rules2007

issues rules on all matters relating to the issuance of permits granted under WSIA.

 Water Services Industry (Licensing) (Exemption) Order 2007

exempts a person from individual or class licensing requirement, by order of the
Minister.
2.3 National Water Services Commission
Act 2006 (Act 654)
 2.3 National Water Services Commission
Act 2006 (Act 654)
Water usage: Domestic and Non Domestic

http://www.span.gov.my/index.php/en/statistic/water-statistic/water-consumption-2017
 2.4 Malaysian Water Quality Index
• The beneficial use of a SIDO =0 for x ≤ 8
freshwater is determined s =100 for x ≥ 92
based on the Water Quality = -0.395 + 0.03 x² - 0.00020 for 8 < x < 92
Index (WQI) x³

• WQI = 0.22(SIDO) + SIBOD = 100.4 – 4.23 x for x ≤ 5

0.19(SIBOD) + 0.16(SICOD) + = 108 e -0.055x – 0.1 x for x > 5
0.15(SIAN) + 0.16(SISS) + SICOD = -1.33 x + 99.1 for x ≤ 20
0.12(SIpH) = 103 e -0.0157x – 0.04 x for x > 20
• The WQI serves as a basis for SIAN = 100.5 – 105 x for x ≤ 0.3
environmental assessment = 94 e -0.573x – 5 | x – 2 | for 0.3 < x < 4
of a watercourse in relation =0 for x ≥ 4
to pollution categorization
and designated classes of SISS = 97.5 e -0.00676x + 0.05 x for x ≤ 100
beneficial uses = 71 e -0.0016x – 0.015 x for 100 < x < 1000
=0 for x ≥ 1000
SIpH = 17.2 – 17.2 x+ 5.02 x² for x< 5.5
= -242 + 95.5 x – 6.67 x² for 5.5 ≤ x < 7
= - 181 + 82.4 x – 6.05 x² for 7 ≤ x < 8.75
= 536 – 77.0 x + 2.76 x² for x ≥ 8.75
2.4 Malaysian Water Quality Index

Parameter Classes
Unit
I IIA IIB III IV V
AN mg/L 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.9 2.7 >2.7
BOD mg/L 1 3 3 6 12 >12
COD mg/L 10 25 35 50 100 >100
DO mg/L 7 5-7 5-7 5-9 5-9 -
pH - 6.5-8.5 6-9 6-9 5-9 5-9 -
EC μS/cm 1000 1000 - - 6000 -
TSS mg/L 25 50 50 150 300 300
Normal Normal
Temperature C
o
- - - -
+ 2 oC + 2 oC
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -
count/
Total Coliform 100 5000 5000 50000 50000 >50000
100ml
 2.4 Malaysian Water Quality Index
Class Uses

Class I Conservation of natural environment. Index Range

Water Supply I – Practically no treatment
necessary. Sub-Index
Fishery I – Very sensitive aquatic species.
Slightly
Clean Polluted
Polluted
Class IIA Water Supply II – Conventional treatment
  required.
  Fishery II - Sensitive aquatic species. WQI 81 – 100 60 – 80 0 – 59
 
Class IIB Recreational use with body contact.

Water quality data were used to determine the

Class III Water Supply III – Extensive treatment water quality status either in clean, slightly
required.
polluted or polluted category and to classify the
Fishery III – Common, of economic value
and tolerant species; livestock drinking. rivers in
Class I (WQI > 92.7),
Class II (WQI = 76.5 – 92.7),
Class IV Irrigation.
Class III (WQI = 51.9 – 76.5),
Class V None of above. Class IV (WQI = 31.0 – 51.9) or
Class V (WQI < 31.0) based on INWQS.
 Classification of River Water Quality in Malaysia 2017

In 2017, with total number of river = 477 rivers,

● 1 river as Class I ● 305 rivers as Class II
● 144 rivers were classified as Class III ● 26 rivers as Class IV
● 1 river as Class  V
 Classification of River Water Quality in Malaysia 2017

 5 major type of water pollution sources:

o Manufacturing industries
o agricultural industries
o sewage treatment plant
o piggery and
o wet market

 3 prime parameters with high impact to the water body:

o Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) - sewage and discharges from
agro- based and manufacturing industries.
o Suspended Solids (SS) - earthworks and land-clearing activities.
o Ammoniacal Nitrogen (AN/ NH₃-N) - sewage that included livestock
farming and domestic sewage.
2.5 Malaysia : National Guidelines for Raw
Drinking Water Quality
National Guidelines for Raw Drinking Water Quality (Revised December 2000)

Parameter Symbol Benchmark

Sulphate SO4 250 mg/l
Hardness CaCO3SO 500 mg/l
Nitrate NO3SO 10 mg/l
Coliform - Must not be detected in any 100 ml sample

Manganese Mn 0.1 mg/l

Chromium Cr 0.05 mg/l
Zinc 3 mg/l
Arsenic Zn 0.01 mg/l
Selenium 1.mg/l
Chloride As 250 mg/l
Phenolics 2.mg/l
TDS Se 1000 mg/l
Iron Cl 0.3 mg/l
Copper - 1.0 mg/l
Lead - 0.01 mg/l
Cadmium Fe 0.003
Mercury Cu mg/l
0.001 mg
Pb
 TREATED WATER QUALITY STANDARD*

Parameters Unit Raw Water Treated

(average) Water
pH pH 5.8 -6.9 6.5 - 9

Iron mg/l < 1.0 < 0.3

Manganese mg/l < 0.2 < 0.1

Turbidity NTU 300 <5

Suspended Solid mg/l 100 -

DO ppm 4-7 8 -10

Color TCU 300 < 15

Aluminium mg/l < 0.1 < 0.2

Fluoride ppm < 1.5 0.5 – 0.7
Res. Chlorine ppm - 1.5 – 2.5
Ammonia ppm - < 1.5

* SAJ-Ranhill Sdn Bhd

 2.6 Water demand
a) Various types of water demands
• While designing the water supply scheme for
a town or city, it is necessary to determine the
total quantity of water required for various
purposes by the city.
• As a matter of fact, the first duty of an
engineer is to determine the water demand of
the town and then to find suitable water
sources from where the demand can be met.
• Following are the various types of water
demand of a city or town:
1. Domestic water demand
2. Industrial water demand
3. Institution and commercial water demand
4. Demand for public use
5. Fire demand
6. Losses and wastes
b) Per capita demand
• Since there are so many factors involved in
water demand, it is not possible to accurately
determine the actual demand.
• Certain empirical formula and rules of thumb
are employed in determining the water
demand, which is very near to the actual
demand.
• If Q is the total quantity of water required by
various purposes by a town per year and P is
population of town, then per capita demand
will be:
• Per capita demand = __𝑄 ___ 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟/𝑑𝑎𝑦
(𝑃 𝑥 365)
 2.6 Water demand
c) Factors affecting per capita demand d) Domestic water demand
1. Size of the city • Quantity of water required for drinking, bathing,
cooking, washing, and other daily routines
2. Climatic conditions
• Mainly depends upon habits, social status,
3. Types gentry and habits of people climatic conditions and customs of the people
4. Industrial and commercial activities • Under normal conditions, the domestic
5. Quality of water supplies consumption of water is about 135-150
L/day/capita (lcpd)
6. Pressure in the distribution system
• However, in developed countries, the figure may
7. Development of sewerage facilities reach 350 L/day/capita due to the use of air
8. System of supply coolers, air conditioners, maintenance of lawns,
and automatic household appliances
9. Cost of water
• The details of the domestic consumption are
10. Local policy of metering and method of ( total 135 Lcpd):
charging (water tariff) - Drinking (5 lcpd) - Cooking (5 lcpd)
- Bathing (55 lcpd) - Laundry (20 lcpd)
• Refer National Water Services Commission (Suruhanjaya
Perkhidmatan Air Negara) for further details on policies and - Utensil washing (10 lcpd)
water tariff for Malaysia. - House cleaning (10 lcpd)
- Toilet flushing (30 lcpd)
 Water usage: Domestic consumption

Malaysia is targeting
the water consumption
at 180 L/cap.day

http://www.span.gov.my/index.php/en/statistic/water-statistic/domestic-consumption-2017
 2.6 Water demand
e) Industrial water demand
• Quantity of water required in industrial
sectors depends on the type of industries
• The quantity of water demand for industrial
purpose is approximately 20 -25% of the total
water demand of a city
• Per capita consumption for industrial needs of
a city is generally taken as 50 lcpd
e) Institutional and commercial water
demand
• Universities, institutions, commercial
buildings, and commercial centres including
office buildings, warehouses, stores, hotels,
shopping centres, health centres, schools,
religious houses, cinema houses, railways,
and bus stations comes under this category.

e) Fire demand
• Fire may take place due to faulty electric wires by short circuiting, fire catching materials,
explosions, bad intension of criminal people or any other unforeseen mishappenings.
• If fires are not properly controlled and extinguished in minimum possible time, they lead to
serious damage and may burn cities.
• All the big cities have full fire-fighting squads.
• As during the fire breakdown large quantity of water is required for throwing it over the fire to
extinguish it, therefore provision is made in the water work to supply sufficient quantity of water
or keep as reserve in the water mains for this purpose.
 2.6 Water demand
e) Fire demand
• In the cities, fire hydrants are provided on the water mains at 100 to 150 m apart for fire demand.
• The quantity of water required for firefighting is generally calculated by using different empirical
formula.
𝑄 = 3182 √𝑃
Where, Q – quantity of water required in liter/min , P – population of town or city in thousands
• Though the total demand of water for extinguishing fire is usually very small, the rate of
consumption is very high. It depends upon bulk, congestion and fire resistance buildings.
• Fire hydrants of 15 to 20 cm diameter are normally provided on all street corners, and at suitable
intermediate points. These are generally connected to water supply mains.
• For a fire of moderate, three streams each of 1100 L/min are required.
• Assuming an average total consumption of 150 L/day, thus the rate of flow required for the fire
demand, is very much higher than the total flowrate required for the purposes.
• However, the provision of fire demand is made only for 3 to 5 hours fire flow.
• The total quantity of water calculated on yearly basis is usually very small because fire breaks out
only few times in a year.
2.7 Engineered water system
 2.8 Surface Water Treatment

• Primary objectives are to

1. Remove suspended material (turbidity) and color
2. Eliminate pathogenic organisms
• Treatment technologies largely based on coagulation and flocculation (---
compulsory)
2.8 Surface Water Treatment

Loji Rawatan Air Semenyih, Selangor

 2.8 Surface Water Treatment

Example of complete processes for surface water treatment plant in

Malaysia
 2.8 Surface Water Treatment

Treatment process:
• Rapid Mix (chemical pre treatment) - The purpose of the rapid mix tank is to
provide a complete mix, allowing the lime/alum to come in contact with the dissolved
minerals. Motor-driven paddles keep the mixture moving and prevent settling in the mix
tanks. Alum is a polymers, acts like a "glue,”
• Flocculation.- The particles attach to one another to form larger solids that will be
settled by gravity and removed during another stage of treatment. As slow proceeds
through each tank the force and speed of the mixing is gradually reduced, allowing the
particles to grow as large and heavy as possible.
• Settling - Next, the water flows to settling/sedimentation tanks, or clarifies, where floc
settle to the bottom as lime sludge/alum sludge. The retention time is two to three hours to
allow the flow settle by gravity. Part of this sludge is returned to the mixing tank to assist in
coagulation; the remainder is drawn off continuously to holding ponds or lagoons for final
disposal.
• Filtration –This step id particularly for the removal of the very fine particle which is not
settle by gravity.
• Chlorination - To ensure bacteriological safety of the water supply a calculated dose of
chlorine will be added. The chlorine disinfects the water and protects against microbial
contamination after the water leaves the treatment plant.
 2.8 Surface Water Treatment

Other treatment process to be considered:

o Pre chlorination - used for disinfection of the raw water only if it does not
result in formation of thrihalomethane.
o Pre sedimentation - To reduce silt and settleable organic matter prior to
chemical treatment
o Flouridation - Fluoride is added into water to prevent incident in dental caries.
o Post Chlorination - To form and remain the residual chlorine in the distribution
system.
o Activated Carbon - To remove odor and taste producing compound.
 2.8 Surface Water Treatment

The goal of municipal water treatment is to provide water that is both

palatable and potable

• Palatable • Potable
o aesthetically pleasing considers the o safe to drink
presence of chemicals that do not o not necessarily aesthetically pleasing
pose a threat to human health o potability affected by
o palatability affected by chloride,  microbials (e.g. Giardia,
colour, corrosive iron, manganese, Cryptosporidium)
taste and odour, total dissolved  organic chemicals (e.g., alachor,
solids, turbidity chlordane, cis-1,2-
dichloroethylene, disinfection by-
products)
 inorganic chemicals (e.g.,
cadmium, copper, lead, mercury)
 radionuclides
 2.9 Raw water intake
• Raw water intakes withdraw water from a river, lake, or reservoir over a
predetermined range of pool levels.
• Intake can be correctly positioned using a number of techniques including
suspending the inlet from a float, securing the inlet in a rigid structure
such as bucket or crib, or using rigid pipe work, or in freezing condition.

Rigid pipe work

Bucket or crib
 2.9 Raw water intake
Types of intake structures; floating intake , submerged intake, pier intake, tower intake,
exposed or tower intake and shore intake

Floating intake
Tower intake
 2.9 Raw water intake
• The following are the characteristics for intake site selection
a) Intake velocity
• •

Intake Design Consideration

Water quality High velocities – head loss, entrain suspended matter,

• Water depth trap fish, and other aquatic animals.

• Velocity below 8 cm/s allows aquatic animal to
• Stream or current velocities
escape, and minimize the suspended matter.
• Foundation stability
• Access
• Power availability b) Intake-port location- Water quality in each stratum may
• Proximity to water vary. To achieve, multiple intake ports set at various levels

treatment plant are generally provided

• • Top intake – less than 2 m below normal level.

Environmental impact
• Bottom intake – least 1 m above the bottom
• Hazard to navigate
 2.10 Grit Removal System
 Grit chamber are designed to remove grit, consisting of sand,
gravel, sanders or other heavy solid materials that have specific
gravities or setting velocities substantially greater than those of
organic particles in water.
Grit chamber located after bar screens and before primary
sedimentation.
Just like sedimentation tank, design mainly to remove heavier
particles or coarse inert and relatively dry suspended solids from
the water and protect moving mechanical equipment from
abrasion and accompanying abnormal water.
Two main types:
o rectangular horizontal flow
o Aerated grit chamber – organic solids are kept in suspension
by rising aerated system provided at the bottom of the tank.
2.10 Grit Removal System
Velocity Controlled
2.10 Grit Removal System
Design criteria for horizontal flow (Rectangular or square)
(configuration type)
2.10 Grit Removal System
Calculation
2.10 Grit Removal System
 2.11 Screening
• It is a unit operation that removes suspended matter from water.
• Screens may be classified as coarse, fine, or micro strainer, depending on
the size of material removed

Coarse screen or trash rack

•
fixed
To prevent large object from entering the
conveyance system
• Consists of vertical flat bars, or, in some
cases, round pipes spaced with 5 to 8 cm
of clear opening.
• Installed outside of any sluice gate. rotary
• The velocity through the coarse screen is
generally less than 8 cm/s.
 2.11 Screening

Fine screen
• To remove smaller objects that may
damage pumps or other equipment.
• Screens consists of heavy wire mesh
with 0.5 cm square opening
• The typical design velocity through the
effective area is in the range of  0.4 to
0.8 m/s.
• There are two types: Traveling screens
and passive screen installation
 2.12 Aeration
 Aeration involves bringing air or other gases in contact with water.
 The purpose of aeration are
1. Reduce the concentrations of taste and odor causing substance by volatilization
2. To oxidize iron and manganese, rendering them insoluble.
3. To dissolve oxygen in water to make it taste better
4. To remove compounds for better water treatment (H2S removal before chlorination
and CO2 removal before softening)

• Types of aerator
1. Cascade -Water is sent down gravitically, and oxygenated as it encounter the air
bubbles caused by turbulent flow
2. Diffused air -Water is enriched with oxygen as it encounter the air bubbles.

Cascade Tray
 2.12 Aeration
Cascade aerators also consist of circular
trays stacked one above the other, with a
central feed pipe. The spacing between
trays varies from 460 mm to 760 mm with
a total height of fall being calculated from
Gameson’s Formula which is:
r = 1+ 0.5 (a x b x h)
where
r = the ratio of the oxygen deficit just before the aerator to that
just after the aerator.
The “oxygen deficit” is the difference between the actual oxygen
Aeration occurs in splash area.
content for the water at that temperature and pressure.
The collection basin area is sized
a = level of water pollution according to the loading rate of
1.25 in slightly polluted water
49 m3/hour/m2.
1.0 in moderately polluted water
0.85 in sewage effluents
Generally the head required at a
b = types of weir cascade aerator range from 1 to 3
1.00 for a free fall weir m.
1.30 for a stepped weir
h = the total height of the fall in meters
 2.12 Aeration
Example

From the intake port, the DO content of a raw water is 4.5 mg/L whereas at saturation
point at average temperature of 26oC and pressure of 755 mm Hg, the DO is 8.2 mg/L. The
water inflow is 390 m3/hour. Design a cascade aerator.

Solution

For treatment requirements, it is sufficient to raise the DO to 80% of that at saturation

condition.

i.e. 0.8 x 8.2 = 6.56 mg/L.

Calculate the the ratio of oxygen deficit, r

r = (8.2 – 4.5)/(8.2 – 6.56)

 2.12 Aeration
Applying Gameson’s Formula for slightly polluted water and a stepped weir,
r = 1 + 0.5 (a x b x h)
= 1 + (1.25 x 1.30 x h)
Knowing r = 2.256
Therefore ,
2.256 = 1 + (1.25 x 1.30 x h)
h = 1.55 m

Taking the flow rate to be 49 m3/hour/m2,

Area of collection basin

= 390 / 49 = 7.95 m2

Hence, if D is the minimum diameter of collection basin,

 D2/4 = 7.95
D = 3.2 m
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Surface water contains organic and inorganic particles.

such as clay and colloids remain in are charged negatively

suspension without aggregating for long and stable in nature
periods of time. Therefore, particle cannot be (stable = existing in
removed by sedimentation. ionized form).

How to destabilise the particle/colloid to

make it able to settle down in sedimentation
tank?

ANSWER:
By adding the COAGULANT ( charged positively)!!!
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

JAR test is a laboratory works to illustrate the coagulation and flocculation concepts
associated to nature water. From this experiment the optimal pH, coagulant dose ,and
coagulant aid could be determined.

Therefore, coagulation and flocculation designed to remove

• Microorganisms and colloids that caused turbidity
• Toxic compounds that are absorbed to particles
• Inorganic materials
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Rapid mixing varieties

 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

 Coagulation is a process utilizes chemical

coagulant. The coagulant is mixed thoroughly  Flocculation is the process in which the
with the water (in rapid mix process). The destabilised particles are bound together
various species of the positively charged by hydrogen bonding of Van der Waal’s
particle (from coagulant) adsorb to the forces to form larger particle flocs
negatively charged colloids (color, clay,  High molecular weight polymers, called
turbidity) and negatively charged particles. coagulant aids, may be added during this
 Once the charge is neutralized, the small step to help bridge, bind, and strengthen
suspended particles are capable of sticking the floc, add weight, and increase settling
together. The slightly larger particles formed rate. Once the floc has reached it optimum
through this process and called microflocs, size and strength, the water is ready for the
are not visible to the naked eye. sedimentation process.
 The water surrounding the newly formed
microflocs should be clear. If it is not, all the
particles' charges have not been neutralized,
and coagulation has not been carried to
completion. More coagulant may need to be
added.
 Microfloc itself is not yet settleable, and then
flocculation process takes place.
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Effectiveness of
Coagulation
The crux of efficient coagulation is the
efficiency of MIXING the coagulant
with the raw water.

Coagulation happens in two

mechanisms;
• Adsorption/destabilization of the
soluble hydrolysis species on the colloid
and destabilization
• sample with high turbidity which needs
low dosage of coagulant (pH 5-7)
• Sweep coagulation where the colloid is
trapped in the hydroxide precipitate
• low turbidity, high dosage of coagulant
(pH 5.8-9)
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Mixing Time

• The time that a fluid remains in the reactor and affects the degree to which the
reaction goes to completion.

• In the ideal reactor,

t = V/Q
where ,
t = time ( in second)
V = volume ( m3)
Q = flow rate ( m3/s)
Adsorption/destabilization: t = 0.5 s
Sweep coagulation : 1 s < t < 10 s

note: real reactor do not behave as ideal reactor because of density difference
due to temperature or other causes.
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Mixing equipment is need in coagulation. Why?

Answer : To dispersion of the coagulant into the raw water.

Dispersion of the coagulant into water is called flash mixing or rapid mixing.
Rapid mixing aims to produce the high G.

Common alternatives for mixing when the mechanism of coagulation is

adsorption/destabilization are;
• Diffusion mixing by pressured water jets
• In line mechanical mixing
• In line static mixing

Common alternatives for mixing when the mechanism of coagulation is sweep

coagulation are;
• Mechanical mixing in stirred tanks
• Diffusion by pipe grid
• Hydraulic mixing
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
Efficiency of MIXING is depending on the 1) velocity gradient and 2) mixing time

Velocity gradient, G
• G , can be thought as the amount of shear taking place;

• For coagulation, G must be higher enough. When chemical be added, the

different G should e take into the consideration.
-1 -1
Adsorption/destabilization: 3000 s < G < 5000 s , t = 0.5 s
Sweep coagulation : 600 s-1 < G < 1000 s-1 , 1 s < t < 10 s

•Different chemicals require different velocity gradients

•Power of mixture imparted to water could be calculated;

Power = G2 V
where,
G = velocity gradient, s -1
V = volume in m3
 = dynamic viscosity of water, Pa.s
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Example
A rapid mixer is used for the dispersion of the coagulant to achieve the
adsorption/destabilization reaction. If the water ( temperature 17 0 C) flows at
300 MLD, determine the volume of coagulation tank. Calculate the power.
Given ; velocity gradient, G = 2000 s -1

Solution
For the adsorption/destabilization reaction, t should be fixed as 0.5 s.
Volume = Q t
= ( 300 x 106 L) ( 0.5 s x d x hr x min )
d 24 hr 60 min 60 s
= 1740 L x m3
1000L
= 1.74 m 3

Refer to water properties, dynamic viscosity of water @17 0 C =1.081 x 10-3 Pa.s
Refer Table
Power = G2 V
= (2000) 2 (1.74) (1.081 x 10-3)
= 7524 Watt
Note: recalculate the power by assuming the temperature of water is 25 0 C. Give comment.
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Effectiveness of Flocculation
The crux of efficient flocculation is the efficiency of MIXING to bring the particles into
contact with one another so that they will collide, stick together and grow to a size
that will readily settle. The mixing to to flocculate the coagulated water.

Efficiency of MIXING is depending on the 1) velocity gradient and 2)mixing time.

Velocity gradient, G

For flocculation, high enough to cause particles contact and keep the floc from
settling but low enough to prevent the floc from tearing apart.

Mixing Time

• For conventional treatment where settling follows flocculation, the flocculation

times ranges from 20 -40 minutes.
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
 Flocculation is normally accomplished with
1) paddle flocculator

Coagulation Flocculation Sedimentation

2) baffled chamber
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Questions
1) In flocculation tank, flow-through velocity is normally to
2.5 - 75 mm/s. Explain what will be happen if the velocity
is less than 2.5 mm/s and more than 7.5 mm/s.

2) In designing a flocculation tank, which one of the

following parameters take more priority: horizontal /flow
through velocity or detention time?

3) Flocculation and settling tanks should be as close as

possible . Why?
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulant  Types of coagulant

 is the substance (chemical) that is - Alum: Al2(SO4)3.14H2O
added to the water to destabilize - Ferric chloride: FeCl3
particles and accomplish coagulation.
- Ferric sulfate: FeSO4
 Properties of coagulant
- Polyelectrolytes
 Non-toxic and relatively inexpensive
 Insoluble in neutral pH range - do not
want high concentrations of metals
left in treated water
 Cation: trivalent cation is lesser
dosage ( compared to Ca2+ and Na+)
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

• Why trivalent
cations considered
as good coagulant ?

ANSWER:

Cations such as Fe3+ and

Al3+ has a higher
molecular weight, easy
to settle. Therefore, it
removes turbidity
effectively even a small
dose was used.
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulant type Examples

Inorganic metallic Aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3•14H2O, sodium aluminate,

coagulant aluminium chloride, ferric sulfate and ferric chloride

Prehydrolyzed Made from alum and iron salts and hydroxide under controlled
metal salts condition; polyaluminium chloride (PAC)

Organic polymers Cationic polymers, anionic polymers, and nonionic polymers

Natural plant-based Opuntia spp. And MoringaOleifera (used in many parts of the
materials world esp. developing country)
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Alum sludge=alum floc =dry sludge

How does alum works? (without water, H2O=Al(OH)3), settle in the
flocculation tank
In sufficient alkalinity in the water

1Al2(SO4)3•14H2O + 6HCO3- ↔ 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 +14H2O + 3SO42-

1 mole of alum added uses 6 moles of alkalinity and produces 6 moles of

CO2
 
The above reaction shifts the carbonate equilibrium and decreases the
pH
However, as long as sufficient alkalinity is present and CO2 (g) is allowed
to evolve, the pH is not drastically reduced and is generally not an
operational problem
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
Example Calculate the amount of alum sludge produced and alkalinity (HCO₃⁻ ) consumed when 1 mg/L alum was used.
 Solution
 
1) Chemical reaction

  Al2(SO4)3.14H2O + 6HCO3- ↔ 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 + 8 H2O + 3SO42- + 14H2O

 2) Molecular weight (MW)

MW alum = 594 g/mole

MW alkalinity = 61 g/mole
MW alum sludge = 78 g/mole Unit conversion
3) Solid removed when 1 mg/L alum was used, (Covert mg/L to mole/L) mg/L
mole/L
1 mg/L = 1.684 x 10-6 mole/L
(594 g/mole)(1000 mg/g)

4) Known that 1 mole alum yield 2 mole of alum sludge, therefore

Solid removed = 2 (1.684 x 10-6 mole/L) (78 g/mole)

= 2.63 x 10-4 g/L = 0.26 mg/L

5) Alkalinity consumed when 1 mg/L alum was used,

Known that 1 mole alum yield 6 mole of alkalinity, therefore

Alkalinity to be consumed= 6 (1.684 x 10-6 mole/L) (61 g/mole) Expressed in CaCO₃
= 6.16 x 10-4 g/ L = 0.62 mg/L HCO₃⁻ x EW CaCO3 / EW HCO₃⁻
= 0.62 mg/L HCO₃⁻ = 0.62 mg/L HCO₃⁻ x 50 g/eq /61 g/eq
= 0.51 mg/L HCO₃⁻ as CaCO₃
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Example

Two sets o such jar test were conducted on a raw water

containing 15 NTU and an HCO3- alkalinity concentration of
50 mg/L expressed as CaCO3. using the given data to find:

a. the optimal pH,

b. The optimal coagulant dose and
c. the theoretical amount of alkalinity that would be
consumed at the optimal dose
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
Jar Test 1
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 2 3 4 5 6

pH 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5

Alum dose 10 10 10 10 10 10
Settled
Turbidity 10.5 7 6.5 5.7 9 13
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Jar Test 2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 2 3 4 5 6

pH 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0

Alum dose 5 7 10 12 15 20
Settled
Turbidity 15 10.5 6 5.5 7 13
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
Answer
1. Construct the graph of turbidity remaining 2)Construct the graph
versus pH turbidity remaining vs alum dose

Turbidity vs pH
14
turbudity remaining (NTU)

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8
pH

• The optimal pH was chosen as 6.25 while the optimal alum dose was about 12.5 mg/L
• 1 mole of alum consumes 6 mole of alkalinity (HCO3-).
• Therefore, you have to calculate moles of alum added per liter.

Al2(SO4)3•14H2O + 6HCO3-↔2Al(OH) 3• 3H2O(s) + 6CO2 +8H2O + 3SO42-

2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

• Recalled: (Eq. 5-7 pg 223 text book)

mg/L = molarity x molecular wt x 103
= (moles/L) x (g/mole) x 103 mg/g)

12.5 mg/L alum, MW of alum= 594 g/mole

 mole/L = 12.5 x 10-3 g/L (alum)/594 g/mole
= 2.1 x 10-5 moles/L
Which will consume 6 (2.1 x 10-5 ) = 1.26 x 10-4 mole/L HCO3-
• MW HCO3- = 61, so
• (1.26 x 10-4 moles/L)(61 g/mole)(103 mg/g) = 7.7 mg/L HCO3-
are consume,
• mg/L as CaCO3 = 7.7 (50)/61 = 6.31 mg/L as CaCO3
 2.14 Softening
The removal of ions that cause hardness is called SOFTENING. This process is
common for groundwater source.

Hardness in natural waters comes from the dissolution of minerals from

geologic formation that contain calcium and magnesium . Two common minerals
are calcite and dolomite. The natural process by which water become hard is
shown below.
 2.14 Softening
Hardness is a term often used to characterize the ability of a water to:
o cause soap scum
Ca2+ + (Soap)-  Ca(Soap)2 (s)
o increase the amount of soap needed
o cause scaling on pipes
o cause valves to stick due to the formation of calcium carbonate crystals
o leave stains on plumbing fixtures

Total Hardness (TH)

 Technically - the sum of all Description Hardness range (mg/L as
polyvalent cations CaCO3)
 Practically - the amount of
Extremely soft 0 - 50
calcium and magnesium ions
(the predominant minerals Very soft 50 100
in natural waters) Moderately 100 – 150
(TH = Ca2+ + Mg2+) hard
 It is divided into carbonate Hard 150 - 300
(CH) and noncarbonate Very hard > 300
hardness (NCH), (TH = CH +
NCH)
 2.14 Softening
• Carbonate Hardness (CH)
 associated with HCO3-, CO32-
 CH = TH or Total alkalinity, whichever is less
 Often called "temporary hardness" because heating the water will remove it.
When the water is heated, the insoluble carbonates will precipitate and tend
to form bottom deposits in water heaters.
Ca2+ + 2HCO3-  CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O

• Non-Carbonate Hardness
 NCH = TH - CH
 If Alkalinity  Total hardness, then NCH = 0
 Called permanent hardness because it is not removed when the water is
heated. It is much more expensive to remove non-carbonate hardness than
carbonate hardness.
 Ca2+, Mg2+ associated with other ions, Cl-, NO3-, SO42-
 2.14 Softening
Example
A sample of water having a pH of 7.2 has the following concentrations of ions
Ca2+ 40 mg/L
Mg 2+
10 mg/L
Na +
11.8 mg/L
K +
7.0 mg/L
HCO3 -
110 mg/L
SO42- 67.2 mg/L
Cl -
11 mg/L
Calculate the TH, CH, NCH, Alkalinity, and construct a bar chart of the constituents

Solution
Ion Conc. M.W. Eq. Wt. Conc. Conc.
n
mg/L mg/mmol mg/meq meq/L mg/L as
(ion conc. /
EW)
CaCO3

Ca2+ 40.0 40.1 2 20.05 1.995 99.8*

Mg2+ 10.0 24.3 2 12.15 0.823 41.2
Na+ 11.8 23.0 1 23.0 0.510 25.7
K+ 7.0 39.1 1 39.1 0.179 8.95
HCO3- 110.0 61.0 1 61.0 1.800 90.2
SO42- 67.2 96.1 2 48.05 1.400 69.9
Cl- 11.0 35.5 1 35.5 0.031 15.5
*Sample Calculation: Concentration of Ca2+ in mg/L as CaCO3 = (Concentration in meq/L) *
(Equivalent Weight of CaCO3) = (1.995 meq/L) X (50 mg/meq) = 99.8 mg/L as CaCO3
 2.14 Softening
• Check Solution
(Cation)s = (Anion)s
175.6 = 175.6
Note: to within  10% mg/L as CaCO3

• Total Hardness
=  of multivalent cations
= (Ca2+) + (Mg2+)
= 99.8 + 41.2
= 141 mg/L as CaCO3

• Alkalinity = (HCO32-) + (CO32-) + (OH-) - (H+)

Since pH = 7.2  (neutral pH, OH- & H+ are negligible)
Alkalinity  (HCO32-) = (1.80 x 10-3) eq/L
Alkalinity = (1.80 x 10-3 eq/L)(50 g/eq)(1000 mg/g)
= 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3

• Carbonate Hardness (the portion of the hardness associated with carbonate or bicarbonate)
• Alkalinity = 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3
TH = 141 mg/L as CaCO3
CH = 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3
(Note: if TH < Alk then CH = TH; and NCH = 0 )

• Non-carbonate Hardness
NCH = TH - CH = 141 - 90.1 =50.9 mg/L as CaCO3
 2.14 Softening
Softening can be accomplished by the lime soda process, ion exchange,
nanofiltration and reverse osmosis. Lime –soda softening is discussed in this chapter.

Lime-Soda Softening
-it is possible to calculate the chemical doses necessary to remove hardness
-hardness precipitation is based on the following two solubility reaction:

To supply hydroxyl ions, the

To supply carbonate ions, economic way is to buy LIME
the chemical used is SODA ( CaO) , then mix with water to
( Na2CO3) produce Ca(OH)2 (hydrated lime)

Ca2+ + CO32- ↔ CaCO3 (s) Mg2+ + 2OH- ↔ MgOH2 (s)

 2.14 Softening
Softening Reactions

The softening reactions are regulated by controlling the pH.

FIRST – any free acids are neutralized
THEN- pH is raised to precipitate the CaCO3; if necessary
- pH is raised further to remove Mg(OH) 2
FINALLY – if necessary, CO32- is added to precipitate the noncarbonate hardness

Six important softening reactions are shown. 1

In each case, the chemical that has been 2

added to the water is printed in bold type. 3

Designation (s) is for solid, hence indicates

that the substance has been removed from 5

the water.
6

In reality they occur simultaneously.

 2.14 Softening
Magnesium is MORE EXPENSIVE to remove than calcium, then we leave as much Mg 2+ as
possible in the water.

The removal of non-carbonate hardness is MORE EXPENSIVE , because we must add the
CO32- ( in term of SODA) therefore we leave as much non-carbonate hardness as possible
in the water.

Traditionally, the final total hardness is set of 75 to 120 mg/L as CaCO 3, however due to
the economic constraints, many utilities will operate at total hardness of 140 -150 mg/L
as CaCO3.
Concurrent removal of other Limitation
species •Because of the solubility of CaCO3 (s) and
•Natural Organic Matter (NOM) MgOH2 (s), ideal mixing is prohibited
•Turbidity some hardness ions remain in solution
•Other metals •insufficient time for reactions
•Minimum Ca hardness ~ 30 mg/L as
CaCO3
•Minimum Mg hardness ~ 10 mg/L as
CaCO3
 2.14 Softening
(1) NEUTRALIZATION OF CARBONIC ACID(H 2CO3)
- Add lime
- To neutralize any free acids ( acid carbonic) that may be present in the water
- NO hardness is removed in this step
CO2 + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3(s) + H2O

(2) PRECIPITATION OF CARBONATE HARDNESS DUE TO CALCIUM

-add lime
-pH must be raised up to 10.3 to percipitate the calcium carbonate
-To achieve this pH , convert all of the bicarbonate to carbonate
-The carbonate then serves as common ion for percipitation reaction

Ca2+ + 2HCO3- + Ca(OH)2  2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O

 2.14 Softening
(3) Precipitation of carbonate hardness due to magnesium
Must add more lime to achieve a pH about 11. It is SOLUBLE.so
The reaction may be considered to occur in two the hardness of
stages. water did not
CHANGE
First stage occurs when we convert all of the
bicarbonate to carbonate
Mg2+ + 2HCO3- + Ca(OH)2  MgCO3+ CaCO3(s) + 2H2O

Second stage- addition of more lime

Mg2+ + CO32- + Ca(OH)2  MgOH2(s)+ CaCO3(s)

4) Removal Of Noncarbonate Hardness Due To Calcium
NO further increase in pH is required.
Provide additional carbonate in the form of soda ash

Ca2+ + Na2CO3  CaCO3(s) + 2Na+

 2.14 Softening
5) Removal Of Noncarbonate Hardness Due To Magnesium
not much changes
-First add lime in hardness . We
still HAVE Ca2+

Mg2+ + Ca(OH)2  MgOH2(s)+ Ca2+

-to eliminate Ca2+ , add soda

Ca2+ + Na2CO3  CaCO3(s) + 2Na+

 2.14 Softening
Flow diagram
for solving
softening
problem
( all addition
as mg/L as
CaCO3 )
 2.14 Softening
Example
From the water analysis presented below, determine the amount of lime and soda (mg/L as CaCO 3) to
soften the water to 120 mg/L as CaCO3
. Water composition (mg/L as CaCO3)
Ca2+ = 149.2 CO2 = 29.3 HCO3-= 185.0

Mg2+ = 65.8 SO42-=29.8

Na+ = 17.4 Cl-= 17.6

Solution

1) Plot the bar chart as shown below 149.2 + 65.8 2) From the bar chart , we note
following

TH = 215 mg/L as CaCO3

CH = 185 mg/L as CaCO3
if TH > alk CH = Alk
NCH = 30 mg/L as CaCO3
NCH = TH -CH
185 + 29.8
 2.14 Softening
3) Follow the logic of Figure in Slide 38, calculate the lime dose as follows

Step Dose (mg/L as CaCO3)

Lime = CO2 29.3
- 185.0
Lime = HCO3
Lime = Mg2+ - 40 = 65.8 - 40 25.8
Lime = excess 25.8
TOTAL = 265.9

CH left due to solubility &

other factors (30 – Ca, 10-mg
4) Calculate NCH left and NCH removed =40 mg/l as CaCO3)

NCH left = final desired hardness – 40 NCH removed = NCH – NCH left

Therefore,
NCH left = 120– 40 = 80 mg/L
NCH removed = NCHi-NCHleft=30 – 80 = -50 ( negative is indicating there is
no need to remove NCH, no SODA required )
 2.14 Softening
TRY !
From the water analysis presented below, determine the
amount of lime and soda (in mg/L as CaCO3) necessary
to soften the water to 80 mg/L hardness as CaCO3

-water composition (mg/L)

Ca2+ =95.20,
Mg2+=13.44,
Na+=25.76,
CO2 = 19.36,
HCO3-=241.46,
SO42-=53.77,
Cl-=67.81
 2.14 Softening

238.0

293.3

349.5
44.14

3
mg/L as CaCO3
Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+
CO2
HCO3- SO42- Cl-
mg/L as CaCO3
44.14

198.0

235.9

349.5
0

3
• From the bar chart: TH= 293.37 mg/L as CaCO3 (noted:
CO2 –does not contribute to the hardness) CH = 198.00 mg/L
as CaCO3 ; NCH = TH-CH = 95.37 mg/L.
 2.14 Softening
Step Dose (mg/L as CaCO3)
Lime = CO2 44.14
Lime=HCO3- 198.00
Lime = Mg2+ - 40 = 55.37 -40 15.37
Lime = excess (equal to Mg2+ to be 20.00 (minimum)
removed) 277.51
Total
 The amount of lime to add is 277.51 mg/L as CaCO3. the excess chosen was the minimum
since (Mg2+-40) was less than 20.
 Determine if any NCH need to be removed.
 NCHleft=final hardness (80 mg/L) –the CH left (40 mg/L)
• NCHleft=80-40 = 40 mg/L
• Thus 40 mg/L may be left.
• NCHR= NCHi-NCHf
• = 95.37 – 40 = 55.37 mg/L
• Thus the amount soda to be added = 55.37 mg/L as CaCO3.
2.14 Softening
 2.15 Sedimentation Tank / Settling Tank /
Clarifier  
 Following flocculation, the water then flows into the settling basins as shown
below (left) . The plan view of clarifier shown below (right)
 Water in clarifier/settling/sedimentation tank is nearly quiescent – low flow with
little turbulence and resides for at least 3 hrs and the flocs settle out and collect at
the bottom ( mechanically removed periodically).

Sedimentation basins are either rectangular or

circular, normally 1 unit sedimentation system
comprises of 2 tanks
2.15 Sedimentation Tank / Settling Tank /
Clarifier  

Typical sedimentation tanks

a. Rectangular, horizontal-flow
b. Circular, radial-flow
c. Hopper-bottomed, upward-flow
2.15 Sedimentation Tank / Settling Tank /
Clarifier  
 2.15 Sedimentation Tank / Settling Tank /
Clarifier  
Rectangular basin
Upflow clarifier

Over flow – settle water outlet Over flow – settle water outlet
 2.15 Sedimentation Tank / Settling Tank /
Clarifier  
The key parameters and typical values in the design of settling tank are:
- surface over flow rate – 20 - 35 m3/day/m2
- detention times – 2- 8 h
- weir overflow rate – 150 – 300 m3 /day/m

to remove the settled

water from the basin
without carrying away any
of the floc particles.
to evenly
distribute the
flow and
suspended
particles across
the section of depends upon the method of
the settling zone cleaning, the frequency of
cleaning and the quantity of
sludge estimated to be
produced.
 2.15 Sedimentation Tank / Settling Tank / Clarifier  

Example
 
Calculate the diameter and depth of a circular clarifier for a design flow of 3800 m 3/d and an overflow rate of
0.00024 m/s and a detention time of 3 h. Calculate the weir loading rate by assuming the total effluent weir is
20 m.

Solution
 
1) Volume , V = Qt
= (3800 m3/d) ( 3/24)
= 475 m3

2) Q = 3800 m3/d = 0.044 m3/s

 
3) Surface overflow rate = Q/A
0.00024 m/s = (0.044 m3/s ) / (A m2)
So , Area, A = 183.3 m2
 

4) Depth, D =V/A
= 475 m3/183.3 m2 = 2.59 m
 
5) Diameter = 15.3 m

6) Weir loading rate = Q/ Lw

= (3800 m3/d )/(20 m) = 190 m3/day.m (OK!, refer to slide 32)
 2.15 Sedimentation Tank / Settling Tank /
Clarifier  

Solution
 
Example    
Determine the surface area 1) First change the
of a sedimentation tank. flow rate to
The design flow is 0.044 compatible units.
m3 /s. Use a design
overflow rate of 20 m / day. (0.044 m 3/ s)
Find the depth of the (86,400 s / day) =
sedimentation for the 3801.6 m3
given overflow rate and
detention time.
day
2) surface area.

surface area is
= 3801.6 m3 /day
2.15 Sedimentation Tank / Settling Tank /
Clarifier  
3) Length to width dimension
 
Common length-to-width , L: W ratios
( 2:1< L:W < 5:1 , and lengths seldom exceed
100 m)

A minimum of two tanks is always provided.

Use two (2) tanks, each with a width of 5 m, a
total surface area of 190 m2

Length = 190 m2 /(2 tanks)(5 m wide) = 19 m

4) Find the tank depth. length-to-width ratio of 3.8: 1 (OK!)
Rule of thumb that the detention time should be 2-8 h.
Assumed the detention time of 120 min
Q = V/t
V=Qt
V = (1900.8 m3/d )(120 min)( d/1440 min) = 158 m3

Depth = 158 m3/ 95 m2 =1.684 m,= 1.7 m

The final design would then be two tanks, each having the
following
dimensions:

5 m wide x 19 m long x 1.7 m deep plus sludge storage depth.

 2.15 Sedimentation Tank / Settling Tank /
Clarifier  
Example
Types Description Water Wastewater
Treatment Treatment
-Settling as discrete particles at a 1.Pre-sedimentation 1.Grit chamber
constant 2.In filter bed after
settling velocity backwashing
I
-No flocculation during  
Sedimentation
- Apply Stokes’ Law
-Particles that aggregated or flocculate Sedimentation after alum 1.Primary sedimentation
during sedimentation or iron coagulation 2.In settling tanks after trickling
    filtration
II
3.In upper portions of
secondary clarifiers after
activated sludge treatment
-Particles settle as a zone or blanket Settling in lime soda ash 1.Activated sludge
-Usually have a clear interface between sedimentation sedimentation
III
the settling sludge and the clarified   2.Sludge thickeners
93
effluent  
 2.15 Sedimentation Tank / Settling
Tank / Clarifier  
Ideal sedimentation basins (Type 1) - UPFLOW CLARIFIER
The concept of an upward-flow sedimentation tank is shown in Figure.
Two important terms in sedimentation zone design are:

1)settling velocity, vs : velocity of the particle

to be removed

2) overflow rate / hydraulic surface loading, vo :

velocity of water decreases as the water flows upward
Note that the velocity of the particle
remains unchanged. Therefore,

If vsvo, then 100% of particles remain

in tank
If vs<vo, then 0% of particles remain in
tank
2.15 Sedimentation Tank / Settling Tank /
Clarifier  

Example  
If a settling velocity of a particle is 2.8 mm/s and the overflow rate of a
upflow clarifier is 0.56 cm/s, what percentage of particles are retained in
upflow clarifier?
 
Solution
 
vs = 2.8 mm/s = 0.28 cm/s
v0 = 0.56 cm/s,  

Note that

vs< vo, then 0% of particles remain in tank

 
 
 2.15 Sedimentation Tank / Settling Tank /
Clarifier  
Ideal sedimentation basins (Type 2)- REGTANGULAR BASIN
 
Particle removal is dependent on the overflow rate, v0.
In order for particle to be removed settling velocity, vs must be sufficient so that it
reaches the bottom during the time the water resides in the tank (t d).
 
vs= v0 , 100 % particles removed
vs> v0 , 100 % particles should be easily removed
vs< v0 , some fraction of the particles will be
removed , P = 100 Vs/V0
The concept of a horizontal flow sedimentation
tank is shown on Figure

In a horizontal flow sedimentation tank:

2.15 Sedimentation Tank / Settling Tank /
Clarifier  

Example  
If a settling velocity of a particle is 0.7 cm/s and the overflow rate of a
horizontal flow sedimentation tank is 0.8 cm/s, what percentage of
particles are retained in sedimentation tank?
 
Solution
 
Vs = 0.7 cm/s
v0 = 0.8 cm/s,  
Note that

vs < v0 , P = 100 vs / vo= 100 ( 0.7)/(0.8) = 87.50 or 88 %

 
 
 2.15 Sedimentation Tank / Settling Tank /
Clarifier  

Example  
A water treatment plant has a horizontal –flow sedimentation tank with an
overflow rate of 17 m3/d. m2 and wishes to remove particles that have
settling velocities of 0.1 mm/s. What percentage of removal should be
expected for each particle in an ideal sedimentation tank?
 
Solution
 
Vs = 0.1 mm/s
v0 = 17 m3/d. m2 =? mm/s, ( do the conversion so, v0= 0.2 mm/s)
 
Note that
vs < v0 , P = 100 vs / vo= 100 ( 0.1)/(0.2) = 50%
 
Recalculate by considering v0 are 0.3 mm/s  
 2.16 Filtration 
 The water leaving the sedimentation tank (settled water) still
contains floc particles, remaining the turbidity in the range from 1 to
10 NTU. These levels of turbidity interfere with the subsequent
disinfection processes, so the turbidity must be reduced. EPA
(Environmental Protection Agency) requires the turbidity of treated
water at least at 0.3 NTU.
 In order to reduce turbidity to less than 0.3 NTU, the filtration
process is normally used.
 The most common filtration used is granular filtration. Granular
filtration is a process for separating suspended or colloidal impurities
from water by passage through a porous medium.
 Porous medium usually a bed of sand or other medium; coal, garnet,
granular activated carbon (GAC), or ilmenite.
 Basically water fills the pores between the sand particles, and the
impurities are left behind either clogged in the open spaces or
attached to the sand itself.
 2.16 Filtration 
Several methods of classifying filter accordingly to;

A) the type of medium b) Allowable loading rate, va

used
i) slow sand filters ( SSF)
i) Sand ii) rapid sand filters (RSF)
ii) coal ( anthracite) iii) high-rate sand filters
iii) dual media ( coal +  
sand) Note: va = Q / As
iv) mixed media
( coal, sand + garnet) va = face velocity ,
Q = flow rate onto filter surface,
m3/d
As = surface area of filter, m2
2.16 Filtration 
2.16 Filtration 
2.16 Filtration 
 2.16 Filtration 
Comparison between granular filtration

Process Slow Sand Filtration Rapid Filtration

Characteristics

Filtration rate 0.05-0.20 m/h 5-15 m/h

Media diameter 0.30-0.45 mm 0.5-1.2 mm
Bed depth 0.9-1.5 m 0.6-1.8m
Required head 0.9-1.5 m 1.8-3.0 m
Run length 1- 6 months 1- 4 days
Regeneration method Scraping Backwashing
Maximum raw-water 10-50 NTU Unlimited with proper
turbidity pretreatment
 2.16 Filtration 
Rapid Sand Filtration

 Also known as depth filtration.

 Rapid sand filters are the most common type of filter used in
water treatment.
 The filters are cleaned by backwashing (take about 10-15 min) ;
o Agitating the bed either mechanically or with compressed
air and washing water upwards through the bed to the
surface.
o The ‘backwash’ water is then wasted or return to the
beginning of the plant to treatment.
 Normally a minimum of two filters are constructed to ensure
redundancy.
 For a larger plant (> 0.5 m3/s), a minimum of four filters is
suggested.
 The surface area of the filter tank is generally restricted in size
to about 100m2, except for very large plants.
 2.16 Filtration 
 water move through sand.
Top layer remove organic compounds (contribute to tase and odour). The space
between sand particles is larger than smallest suspended particles, so simple
filtration is not enough.
Most particles pass through surface layers but trapped in pore spaces. Effective
filtration extends into the depth of the filter.
This property of the filter is key to its operation: if the top layer of sand were to
block all the particles, the filter would quickly clogged, headloss increases and
turbidity increases.
 2.16 Filtration 
Example

For a flow of 0.8 m3/s, how many rapid sand filter of dimensions 10 m x 20 m
are needed for a loading rate of 300 m3/d.m2?

Solution

1) Determine Q in m3/d

Q = (0.8 m3/s)( 86400 s/d) = 69120 m3/d

2) Determine total area required

A = 69120 m3/d = 230.4 m2

300 m3/d.m2

3) Number of filters ( must round to next highest integer)

No = 230.4 m2 = 1.152 or 2 filters

(10 m) (20m)
 2.16 Filtration 
Slow sand filtration
Maintenance

Slow sand filters slowly lose their performance as the Schmutzdecke grows and thereby reduces the rate of
flow through the filter. 

The top few millimetres of fine sand is scraped off to expose a new layer of clean sand. Water is then
decanted back into the filter and re-circulated for a few hours to allow a new Schmutzdecke to develop. The
filter is then filled to full depth and brought back into service.

at a loading rate of
2.9 to 7.6 m3/d.m2
by gravity feed

formed in the first 10–20

days of operation and
consists of bacteria,
fungi, protozoa, rotifera
good quality and range of aquatic
with 90-99% organisms.
bacterial provides the effective
reduction. purification in potable
water treatment,
 2.17 Disinfection 
 Disinfection is used in water treatment
to reduce pathogens (disease – producing
microorganism) to an acceptable level.
 Disinfection is not the same as
sterilization. Sterilization implies the
Vibrio cholera
destruction of all living organisms. Giardia
Drinking water need not be sterile.
 Human enteric pathogens that must be
destroyed by disinfection included
bacteria (E. coli O157, Vibrio cholera),
Viruses, Protozoa, (Cryptosporidium sp.,
Giardia) and Amebic cysts.
E.coli
 2.17 Disinfection 
Others disinfectant
1. Ozone (O3)
– very powerful oxidant – kills
cysts
– no taste and odor problems
– widely used in Europe
– no residual
– more expensive than chlorine
(produced on-site)
2. Ultraviolet radiation
– effective bactericide and viricide
– water must be free of turbidity
and lamps free of slime and
precipitates
– no residual protection
3. Hypochlorite salts: NaOCl and
Ca(OCl)2
– more expensive to purchase
– easier to handle
– more common for small supplies
4. Chloramines (NH2Cl, NHCl2, NCl3)
– longer contact time if primary
disinfectant
– used in combination with other
disinfectants
5. Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)
– very effective
– must be produced on site
2.17 Disinfection 
 2.17 Disinfection 
Disinfectant
 Cheaper,
 Tends to decrease pH
 Each mg/L of chlorine
added reduced the
alkalinity by up to 1.4
mg/L as CaCO3

 Always contain alkali to

enhance stability
 More expensive
 Tend to raise pH
 safer
 2.17 Disinfection 
Typical mixers for the addition of chlorine
 2.17 Disinfection 
Chlorine Reaction in Water
 
 When chlorine is added to water, a mixture of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hydrochloric
acid (HCl) is formed:
 
Cl2 (g) + H20  HOCl + H+ + Cl-  
 This reaction is pH dependent and essentially complete within a very few milliseconds. The
pH dependence may be summarized as follows:
o In dilute solution and at pH levels above 1.0, the equilibrium (above equation) is
displaced to the right and very little Cl2 exists in solution.
o Below pH 1.0, depending on the chloride concentration, the HOCl reverts back to Cl 2
(above equation)
o HOCl is a weak acid and dissociates poorly at levels of pH below about 6.
o Between pH 6.0 and 8.5 there occurs a very sharp change from undissociated HOCl to
almost complete dissociation:

HOCl = H+ + OCl-

o Chlorine exists predominantly as HOCl at pH levels between 4.0 -6.0

o (At 20oC, above pH 7.5), and (at 00C, above pH 7.8), hypochlorite ions (OCl-)
predominate.
o Hypochlorite ions exist almost exclusively at levels of pH around 9 and above.
 2.17 Disinfection 
To be of practical service, such water disinfectants must possess the following
properties:

1. They must destroy the kinds and numbers of pathogens that may be introduced into
water within a practicable period of time over an expected range in water
temperature.
2. They must meet possible fluctuations in composition, concentration and condition
of the waters to be treated
3. The must be neither toxic to human and domestic animals nor unpalatable or
otherwise objectionable in required concentrations.
4. The must be dispensable at reasonable cost and safe and easy to store, transport,
handle and apply.
5. Their strength or concentration in the treated water must be determined easily,
quickly and (preferable) automatically.
6. They must (residual chlorine) persist within disinfected water in a sufficient
 2.17 Disinfection 
Residual Chlorine

●The presence of residual chlorine in drinking water indicates

that:

- sufficient amount of chlorine was added initially to the water

to inactive the bacteria and some viruses that cause diarrheal
disease, and
- the water is protected from
recontamination during storage.

●The presence of residual chlorine

in drinking water is correlated with
the absence of most disease – causing
organisms, and thus is a measure of
the potability of water.