Purified water

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Bottle for Distilled water in the Real Farmacia in Madrid

Purified water is water from any source that is physically processed to remove impurities. Distilled
water and deionized (DI) water have been the most common forms of purified water, but water can also be
purified by other processes including reverse osmosis, carbon
filtration, microfiltration,ultrafiltration, ultraviolet oxidation, or electrodialysis. In recent decades, a
combination of the above processes have come into use to produce water of such high purity that its trace
contaminants are measured in parts per billion (ppb) or parts per trillion (ppt). Purified water has many
uses, largely in science and engineering laboratories and industries, and is produced in a range of purities.
Purified water in colloquial English can also refer to water which has been treated ("rendered potable") to
neutralize, but not necessarily remove contaminants considered harmful to humans and/or animals.

Contents

 1 Methods of purifying water

o 1.1 Distillation

o 1.2 Double distillation

o 1.3 Deionization

o 1.4 Other processes

 2 Uses

o 2.1 Laboratory use

o 2.2 Non-laboratory uses

 3 Health effects

 4 See also

 5 References
Methods of purifying water
Distillation
Main article: Distilled water

Distilled water is often defined as bottled water that has been produced by a process of distillation and has
an electrical conductivity of not more than 10 µS/cm and total dissolved solids of less than
10 mg/litre.[1] Distillation involves boiling the water and then condensing thevapour into a clean container,
leaving solid contaminants behind. Distillation produces very pure water but also leaves behind a white or
yellowish mineral scale on the distillation apparatus, which requires that the apparatus be frequently
cleaned. Distillation does not guarantee the absence of bacteria in drinking water; unless the reservoir
and/or bottle are sterilized before being filled, and once the bottle has been opened, there is a risk of
presence of bacteria.

For many applications, cheaper alternatives such as deionized water are used in place of distilled water.

Double distillation
Double-distilled water (abbreviated "ddH2O", "Bidest. water" or "DDW") is prepared by double distillation of
water. Historically, it was the de facto standard for highly purified laboratory water
for biochemistry and trace analysis until combination methods of purification became widespread.

Deionization
Deionized water, also known as demineralized water[2] (DI water, DIW or de-ionized water), is water that
has had its mineral ions removed, such as cations from sodium, calcium, iron, copper and anions such
as chloride and bromide. Deionization is a physical process which uses specially-manufactured ion
exchange resins which bind to and filter out the mineral salts from water. Because the majority of water
impurities are dissolved salts, deionization produces a high purity water that is generally similar to distilled
water, and this process is quick and without scale buildup. However, deionization does not significantly
remove uncharged organic molecules, viruses or bacteria, except by incidental trapping in the resin.
Specially made strong base anion resins can remove Gram-negative bacteria. Deionization can be done
continuously and inexpensively using electrodeionization.

Deionization does not remove the hydroxide or hydronium ions from water. These are the products of
the self-ionization of water to equilibriumand therefore are impossible to remove.

Other processes
Other processes are also used to purify water, including reverse osmosis, carbon filtration, microporous
filtration, ultrafiltration, ultraviolet oxidation, or electrodialysis. These are used in place of, or in addition to
the processes listed above. Processes rendering water potable but not necessarily closer to being pure
H2O / hydroxide + hydronium ions include use of dilute sodium hypochlorite, mixed-oxidants (electro-
catalyzed H2O + NaCl), and iodine; See discussion regarding potable water treatments under "Health
effects" below.
Uses

Purified water is suitable for many applications, the most popular being autoclaves, hand-pieces, laboratory
testing, laser cutting, and automotive use.[3]

Laboratory use
Technical standards on water quality have been established by a number of professional organizations,
including the American Chemical Society (ACS), ASTM International, the U.S. National Committee for
Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS) which is now CLSI, and the U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP). The ASTM,
NCCLS, and ISO 3696 classify purified water into Grade 1–3 or Types I–IV depending upon the level of
purity. These organizations have similar, although not identical, parameters for highly purified water.

Regardless of which organization's water quality norm is used, even Type I water may require further
purification depending upon the specific laboratory application. For example, water that is being used for
molecular-biology experiments needs to be DNase or RNase-free, which requires special additional
treatment or functional testing. Water for microbiology experiments needs to be completely sterile, which is
usually accomplished by autoclaving. Water used to analyze trace metals may require elimination of trace
metals to a standard beyond that of the Type I water norm.

Maximum Contaminant Levels in Highly Purified Water[4]

ISO 3696 (1987) ASTM (D1193-91) NCCLS (1988) Pharmacopoeia

Grade Grade Grade Type Type Type Type Type Type Type
Contaminant Parameter EP USP
1 2 3 I* II** III*** IV I II III

Resistivity at 25
Ions 10 1 0.2 18.0 1.0 4.0 5.0 >10 >1 >0.1 >0.23 >0.77
°C/MΩ·cm

Conductivity at 25
0.1 1.0 5.0 0.056 1.0 0.25 0.2 <0.1 <1 <10 <4.3 <1.3
°C/μS·cm−1

5.0– 5.0– 5.0–

Acidity/Alkalinity pH at 25 °C - - - - - - - - -
7.5 8.0 8.0

Total Organic
Organics - - - 50 50 200 - <50 <200 <1000 <500 <500
Content/p.p.b.(μg/l)
Total Solids mg/kg - 1 2 - - - - 0.1 1 5 - -

Colloids Silicia/μg/mL - - - <3 <3 <500 - <0.05 <0.1 <1 - -

Bacteria CFU/mL - - - - - - - <10 <1000 - <100 <100

Conductivity of ultra-pure water is 5.5 × 10−6 S·m−1 (18 MΩ cm) and is due only to H+ and OH- ions
produced in the water dissociation equilibrium.[5] This low conductivity is only achieved, however, in the
presence of dissolved monoatomic gases. Completely de-gassed ultra-pure water has conductivity of
1.2 × 10−4 S·m−1, whereas upon equilibration to the atmosphere it is 7.5 × 10−5 S·m−1 due to dissolved
CO2in it.[5] The highest grades of ultrapure water should not be stored in glass or plastic containers
because these container materials leach (release) contaminants at very low concentrations. Storage
vessels made of silica are used for less demanding applications and vessels of ultrapure tin are used for
the highest purity applications.

Examples of laboratory quality sources include Milli-Q, Elga Ultra, or Purite Neptune.

Non-laboratory uses
Distilled or deionized water is commonly used to top up lead acid batteries used in cars and trucks. The
presence of foreign ions commonly found in tap water will cause a drastic reduction in an automobile's
battery lifespan.

Distilled or deionized water is preferable to tap water for use in automotive cooling systems.[6] The minerals
and ions typically found in tap water can be corrosive to internal engine components and can cause a more
rapid depletion of the anti-corrosion additives found in mostantifreeze formulations.[7][8] Distilled or deionized
water is especially important in automotive hybrid system component cooling systems, mixed with hybrid
system coolant, to prevent corrosion and/or electrolysis of hybrid components.[9]

Using distilled water in steam irons for pressing clothes, as well as other appliances such as humidifiers
and cigar humidors which boil water, can reduce mineral scale build-up and help the appliance last longer.
However, many iron manufacturers say that distilled water is no longer necessary in their irons. [10][11]

Patients using CPAP machines (for treatment of sleep apnea) that have a humidifier are instructed to use
distilled water to prevent build-up of mineral deposits (and thus prolong the life of the humidifier).[12]

Purified water is used in freshwater and marine aquaria. Since it does not contain impurities, such as
copper and chlorine, it keeps fish free from diseases, as well as avoiding the build-up of algae on aquarium
plants, due to its lack of phosphate and silicate. Deionized water should be re-mineralized before used in
aquaria, since it also lacks many macro and micro-nutrients needed by both plants and fish.
Water (sometimes mixed with methanol) has been used to extend the performance of aircraft engines. In
piston engines it acts to delay the onset of detonation. In turbine engines it allows for more fuel flow for a
given turbine temperature limit, it and increases mass flow. As an example, it was used on early Boeing
707 models.[13] Advanced materials and engineering have since rendered such systems obsolete for new
designs, however spray-cooling of incoming air-charge is still used to a limited extent with off-road turbo-
charged engines (road-race track cars).

Deionized water is very often used as an "ingredient" in many cosmetics and pharmaceuticals where it is
sometimes referred to as "aqua" on product ingredient labels; see International Nomenclature of Cosmetic
Ingredients. This use again owes to its lack of potential for causing undesired chemical reactions due to
impurities.

Because of its high relative dielectric constant (~80), deionized water is also used (for short durations) as a
high voltage dielectric in manypulsed power applications, such as Sandia National Laboratories' Z Machine.

Distilled water(such as Wilkin's distilled drinking water or Absolute distilled water) can also be used in PC
watercooling systems and Laser Marking Systems. The lack of impurity in the water means that the system
stays clean and prevents a build up of bacteria and algae. Also, the low conductance leads to less risk of
electrical damage in the event of a leak or spillage. This enables the machine to work at optimal efficiency
even after extensive periods of time without water exchange.

A recent use of purified water is that of a final rinse in some car washes where, because it contains no
dissolved solutes, the car dries without leaving any spots. Another use of deionized water is in window
cleaning, where window cleaners use pumped systems to brush and rinse windows with deionized water,
again without leaving any spots.

Deionized water has also recently found a use in an up-to-date version of water-fog fire-extinguishing
systems. Such systems have been used in sensitive environments, such as where high-voltage electrical
and sensitive electronic equipment is used. The 'sprinkler' nozzles use much finer spray jets and operate at
up 35 MPa (350 bar; 5000 psi) of pressure. The extremely fine mist produced takes the heat out of a fire
rapidly and the deionized water coupled with the fine droplets is nonconducting (when deionized) and may
not damage sensitive equipment that is not already damaged by fire. Deionized water, however, is
inherently acidic and contaminants (such as copper, dust, stainless and carbon steel, and many other
common materials) rapidly supply ions, thus re-ionizing deionized water. It is not generally considered
acceptable to spray water on electronic circuits that are in use or with power applied. It is wise to avoid
mixing water and electricity.
Health effects

Distillation removes all minerals from water, and the membrane methods of reverse osmosis and
nanofiltration remove most to all minerals. This results in demineralized water which is not considered
ideal drinking water. The World Health Organization investigated the health effects of demineralized water
in 1980, and its experiments in humans found that demineralized water increased diuresis and the
elimination ofelectrolytes, with decreased serum potassium concentration. Magnesium, calcium and other
nutrients in water can help to protect against nutritional deficiency. Demineralized water may also increase
the risk from toxic metals because it more readily absorbs them, and because the presence of calcium and
magnesium in water can prevent absorption of lead and cadmium. Recommendations for magnesium have
been put at a minimum of 10 mg/L with 20–30 mg/L optimum; for calcium a 20 mg/L minimum and a 40–
80 mg/L optimum, and a total water hardness (adding magnesium and calcium) of 2–4 mmol/L. At water
hardness above 5 mmol/L, higher incidence of gallstones, kidney stones, urinary stones, arthrosis, and
arthropathies have been observed. For fluoride the concentration recommended for dental health is 0.5–
1.0 mg/L, with a maximum guideline value of 1.5 mg/L to avoid dental fluorosis.[18]

Water filtration devices are becoming increasingly common in households. Most of these devices do not
distill water, though there continues to be an increase in consumer-oriented water distillers and reverse
osmosis machines being sold and used. Municipal water supplies often add or have trace impurities at
levels which are regulated to be safe for consumption. Much of these additional impurities, such as volatile
organic compounds, fluoride, and an estimated 75,000+ other chemical compounds[19][20][21] are not
removed through conventional filtration; however, distillation and reverse osmosis eliminate nearly all of
these impurities.

The drinking of purified water has been both advocated and discouraged for health reasons. Purified water
lacks minerals and ions, such as calcium, that are normally found in potable water, that play key roles in
biological functions such as in nervous system homeostasis. The lack of naturally-occurring minerals in
distilled water has raised some concerns. The Journal of General Internal Medicine[22] published a study on
the mineral contents of different waters available in the US. The study found that "drinking water sources
available to North Americans may contain high levels of calcium, magnesium, and sodium and may provide
clinically important portions of the recommended dietary intake of these minerals". It encouraged
individuals to "check the mineral content of their drinking water, whether tap or bottled, and choose water
most appropriate for their needs". Since distilled water is devoid of minerals, supplemental mineral intake
through diet is needed to maintain proper health.

The consumption of "hard" water (water with minerals) is associated with beneficial cardiovascular effects.
As noted in the American Journal of Epidemiology, consumption of hard drinking water is negatively
correlated with atherosclerotic heart disease.[23] Since distilled water is free of minerals, it will not have
these potential benefits.
Some water is purified to avoid water fluoridation, which is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public
water supply to reduce tooth decay. Although health and dental organizations worldwide have endorsed
fluoridation's safety and effectiveness, opposition to water fluoridation is considerable, based on ethical,
legal, safety, and efficacy grounds, and companies selling water filters are involved in the
opposition.[24]Whether purified water contains fluoride depends on which technology is used to purify the
water. Pitcher or faucet-mounted filters do not alter fluoride; the more-expensive reverse osmosis filters
remove 65%–95% of fluoride, and distillation filters remove all fluoride. Unnecessary use of filtered water
may harm dental health for anyone who does not use a fluoride containing toothpaste.[25]

See also

 Hydrogen production

 Ionized water

 Water ionizer

 Electrodeionization

 Atmospheric water generator

 Heavy water

 Water softening

 Milli-Q water
 Water ionizer
A water ionizer is an appliance that ionizes water. Although there is no empirical evidence that ionized
water is beneficial to human health, it is marketed with claims that it is an antioxidant and can slow aging
and prevent disease.[1] Such claims contradict basic laws of chemistry and physiology.[2]

Contents
[hide]

 1 Ionization

 2 Uses

 3 See also

 4 References

Ionization
Main article: Electrolysis of water

A water ionizer separates water into alkaline and acid fractions using a process known
as electrolysis.[3] When a source of water lacks mineral ions, such as distilled water, or has been filtered
by reverse osmosis, minerals must be added to water for electrolysis to occur.

Uses

There is no empirical evidence to support claims made by manufacturers that drinking ionized water will
have a noticeable effect on the body.[4] Drinking ionized water would not be expected to alter the
body's pH,[1] due to the acid-base homeostasis.

Electrolyzed water has been used by the food industry to sanitize food products; though effective in
bacterial solutions, it was found less useful when sanitizing utensils, surfaces and food products.[5][6] Acidic
electrolyzed water (pH 2.3–2.6) may have use as a seed surface disinfectant or contact bactericide.[7]
 Electrolysed water

Electrolysed water (EOW or EO, also known as electrolyzed oxidizing water, electro-activated
water or electro-chemically activated water solution) is produced by the electrolysis of ordinary tap
water containing dissolved sodium chloride.[1] The electrolysis of such salt solutions produces a solution of
sodium hypochlorite, which is the most common ingredient in store-bought household bleach.

Contents

 1 Creation

 2 Efficient disinfectant

 3 EPA Registration

 4 Drawbacks

 5 See also

 6 References

 7 External links

Creation

The electrolysis occurs in a specially designed reactor which allows the separation of the cathodic and
anodic solutions. In this process,hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions are produced at the cathode, leading to
an alkaline solution that consists essentially of sodium hydroxide (lye). At the anode, chloride ions are
oxidized to elemental chlorine. If some of this chlorine is allowed to combine with some of the hydroxide
ions produced at the cathode, it disproportionates into hypochlorous acid, a weak acid and an oxidizing
agent.[2] This "acidic electrolyzed water" can be raised in pH by mixing in the desired amount of hydroxide
ion solution from the cathode compartment, yielding a solution ofsodium hypochlorite NaClO which is the
major component of ordinary household laundry bleach. A solution whose pH is 7.3 will contain equal
concentrations of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion; reducing the pH will shift the balance toward the
acid.

Efficient disinfectant

Both sodium hydroxide and hypochlorous acid are efficient disinfecting agents;[1][3] since the effectiveness
of EOW seems to increase at low pH, the acidic form of EOW is usually preferred for rinsing food-
preparation surfaces, fruits and vegetables.[2]

EOW will kill spores and many viruses and bacteria.[2] Sanyo uses electrolysed water in its "virus
washers".[4]
Electrolysis units sold for industrial and institutional disinfectant use and for municipal water-treatment are
known as bleach generators.[5]These avoid the need to ship and store chlorine gas, as well as the weight
penalty of shipping prepared bleach solutions.

EPA Registration

Although the field of electro-chemical activation (―ECA‖) technology has existed for more than 40 years,
companies producing anolyte solutions have only recently approached the Environmental rotection
Agency (EPA) seeking registration. This is due to the lack of advances in equipment that can reliably
deliver the solutions in the consistent, repeatable manner needed to meet and pass the battery of various
EPA product registration tests.

The EPA has reviewed the data relative to EcaFlo Anolyte, a brand of electrolyzed water, developed by
Integrated Environmental Technologies, Ltd (―IET‖) After a battery of independent lab testing EcaFlo
Anolyte is the only anolyte solution EPA registered as a broad spectrum hospital disinfectant.

Drawbacks

Electrolyzed water loses its potency fairly quickly, so it cannot be stored for long.[2] Electrolysis machines
are expensive.[1][3] The electrolysis process needs to be monitored frequently for the correct potency.[1][3]

People selling water ionizers for home use claim the alkaline water provides health benefits[1] without
harming healthy tissue,[8] but these claims are not supported by scientific research and contradict basic
aspects of chemistry and physiology.[9] [10]

See also

 Disinfectant

 Electrolysis of water

 Water ionizer

 Electrodeionization
 Atmospheric water generator

An atmospheric water generator (AWG), is a device that extracts water from humid ambient air. Water
vapor in the air is condensed by cooling the air below its dew point, exposing the air to desiccants, or
pressurizing the air. Unlike a dehumidifier, an AWG is designed to render the water potable. AWGs are
very useful in locations where pure drinking water is difficult or impossible to obtain, as there is almost
always a small amount of water in the air. The two primary techniques in use are cooling and desiccants.

Contents
[hide]

 1 History

 2 Modern technologies

o 2.1 Cooling condensation

o 2.2 Wet desiccation

 3 References

History

Water has been collected from the air for at least 2,000 years using air wells in Middle Eastern deserts, and
later in Europe. Historical records indicate the use of water-collecting fog fences.

Modern technologies

Many atmospheric water generators operate in a manner very similar to that of a dehumidifier: air is passed
over a cooled coil, causing water to condense. The rate of water production depends on the ambient
temperature, humidity, the volume of air passing over the coil, and the machine's capacity to cool the coil.
These systems reduce air temperature, which in turn reduces the air's capacity to carry water vapor. This is
the most common technology.

An alternative available technology uses liquid, or "wet" desiccants such as lithium chloride or lithium
bromide to pull water from the air viahygroscopic processes.[1] A proposed similar technique combines the
use of solid desiccants, such as silica gel and zeolite, with pressure condensation.
Cooling condensation

Example of cooling-condensation process.

In a cooling condensation based atmospheric water generator, a compressor circulates refrigerantthrough

a condenser and an evaporator coil which cools the air surrounding it, lowering the air'sdew point and
causing water to condense. A controlled-speed fan pushes filtered air over the coil. The resulting water is
then passed into a holding tank with purification and filtration system to keep the water pure.[2]

The rate at which water can be produced depends on relative humidity and ambient air temperature and
size of the compressor. atmospheric water generators become more effective as relative humidity and air
temperature increase. As a rule of thumb, Cooling Condensation atmospheric water generators do not work
efficiently when the temperature falls below 18.3°C (65°F) or the relative humidity drops below 30%. The
cost-effectiveness of an atmospheric water generator depends on the capacity of the machine, local
humidity and temperature conditions and the cost to power the unit.

Wet desiccation
One form of wet desiccant water generation involves the use of salt in a concentrated brine solution to
absorb the ambient humidity. These systems then extract the water from the solution and purify them for
consumption. A version of this technology was developed as portable devices which run on generators.
Large versions, mounted on trailers, are said to produce up to 1200 gallons of water per day, at a rate of up
to 5 gallons of water per gallon of fuel.[3] This technology was contracted for use by the US Army and the
US Navy from Terralab[citation needed] and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).[4]

A variation of this technology has been developed to be more environmentally friendly, primarily through
the use of passive solar energy and gravity. Brine is streamed down the outside of towers, where it absorbs
water from the air. The brine then enters a chamber and subjected to a vacuum and heated. The vacuum
significantly lowers the boiling point of the brine, so the boiling process requires only a small amount of
energy. The steam is collected and condensed, while the remaining brine is recirculated through the
system. As the condensed water is removed from the system using gravity, it creates the vacuum which
lowers the boiling point of the brine.[5]
Heavy water
Not to be confused with hard water or tritiated water.

Deuterium oxide

IUPAC name

[2H]2-water

Other names

Deuterium monoxide

Water-d2

Identifiers

CAS number 7789-20-0

PubChem 24602

ChemSpider 23004

UNII J65BV539M3

EC number 232-148-9

KEGG D03703

MeSH Deuterium+oxide

ChEBI CHEBI:41981

ChEMBL CHEMBL1232306
RTECS number ZC0230000

Gmelin Reference 97

Jmol-3D images Image 1

SMILES

[show]

InChI

[show]

Properties

2
Molecular formula H2O

Molar mass 20.0276 g mol-1

Exact mass 20.023118178 g mol-1

Appearance Very pale blue, transparent liquid

Density 1.107 g cm-3

Melting point 3.8 °C, 277 K, 39 °F

Boiling point
101 °C, 374 K, 214 °F

log P -1.38

Viscosity 0.00125 Pa s (at 20 °C)

Dipole moment 1.87 D

Hazards

MSDS External MSDS

NFPA 704
 0
1
1
(what is this?) (verify)

Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard

state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)

Infobox references

Heavy water is water highly enriched in the hydrogen isotope deuterium;[1] e.g., heavy water used
in CANDU reactors is 99.75% enriched (in ordinary water, the deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio is about
156 parts per million). Pure heavy water is not radioactive. It is about 11% denser than water, but
otherwise, is physically and chemically similar. However, the difference (especially the biological properties)
is larger than in most other isotope-substituted compounds, due to the fact that deuterium is unique among
heavy stable isotopes in being twice as heavy as the lightest isotope. This difference increases
the strength of water's hydrogen-oxygen bond, and this in turn is enough to cause differences that are
important to some biochemical reactions.

The human body naturally contains deuterium equivalent to five grams of heavy water, which is thought to
be harmless. Similar doses are used as non-radioactive tracers in human and animal metabolic
experiments. However, when heavy water replaces ~25% to 50% of the body's water, it interferes with
cellular mitotic apparatus and prevents cell division. Single-celled prokaryotic(without a cell nucleus)
organisms such as bacteria, which do not have a mitotic apparatus, may survive and grow slowly in heavy
water. However, eukaryotic (with a nucleus) organisms, from single-celled protozoa to all multi-cellular
organisms, if given only heavy water, soon stop dividing and growing. Plant seeds won't germinate in heavy
water, while mammals fall ill from lack of needed blood-cell and intestinal-cell replacement, and die when
~50% of their body-water has been replaced with heavy water.[2] Thus, highly enriched heavy water will not
support eukaryotic life.

Heavy water was first produced in 1932, a few months after the discovery of deuterium.[3] With the
discovery of nuclear fission in late 1938, and the need for a neutron moderator that captured few neutrons,
heavy water became an important component of early nuclear energy programs during World War
II (1939–1945). Partly because of Nazi Germany's overreliance on heavy water, it didn't produce a
functioning reactor for the duration of the war. Since then, heavy water is an essential component in some
types of reactor, either for power or for nuclear-weapons isotopes, such as plutonium-239. These reactors
have the advantage of being able to run on natural uranium. Most modern reactors use enriched
uranium and normal "light water" (H2O) moderator.
 Contents

 1 Other meanings

o 1.1 Semiheavy water

o 1.2 Heavy-oxygen water

 2 Physical properties (with comparison to light water)

 3 History

 4 Effect on biological systems

o 4.1 Effect on animals

o 4.2 Toxicity in humans

 5 Heavy water radiation contamination confusion

 6 Production

o 6.1 USSR/Russia

o 6.2 United States

o 6.3 India

o 6.4 Norway

o 6.5 Canada

o 6.6 Iran

o 6.7 Pakistan

o 6.8 Other countries

 7 Applications

o 7.1 Nuclear magnetic resonance

o 7.2 Organic chemistry

o 7.3 Fourier transform spectroscopy

o 7.4 Neutron moderator

o 7.5 Neutrino detector

o 7.6 Metabolic rate testing in physiology/biology

o 7.7 Tritium production

 8 See also

 9 References

 10 External links
Other meanings
Semiheavy water
Semiheavy water, HDO, exists whenever there is water with light hydrogen (protium, 1H) and deuterium (D
or 2H) in the mix. This is because hydrogen atoms (hydrogen-1 and deuterium) are rapidly exchanged
between water molecules. Water containing 50% H and 50% D in its hydrogen actually contains about 50%
HDO and 25% each of H2O and D2O, in dynamic equilibrium. In regular water, about 1 molecule in 3,200 is
HDO (one hydrogen in 6,400 is D). By comparison, heavy water D 2O occurs at a proportion of about 1
molecule in 41 million (i.e., one in 6,4002). This makes semiheavy water far more common than "normal"
heavy water.

Heavy-oxygen water
Water enriched in the heavier oxygen isotopes 17O and 18O is also commercially available, e.g. for use as a
non-radioactive isotopic tracer. It qualifies as 'heavy water' in being denser than normal water (H218O is as
dense as D2O, H217O is halfway between H2O and D2O), but is rarely called heavy water, since it doesn't
contain the deuterium which gives D2O its unusual nuclear and biological properties. It is more expensive
than D2O due to the more difficult separation of 17O and 18O.

Physical properties (with comparison to light water)

Property D2O (Heavy water) H2O (Light water)

Freezing point (°C) 3.82 0.0

Boiling point (°C) 101.4 100.0

Density at STP (g/mL) 1.1056 0.9982

Temp. of maximum density (°C) 11.6 4.0

Dynamic viscosity (at 20°C, mPa·s) 1.25 1.005

Surface tension (at 25°C, μJ) 7.193 7.197

Heat of fusion (cal/mol) 1,515 1,436

Heat of vaporisation (cal/mol) 10,864 10,515

pH (at 25°C) 7.41 (sometimes "pD") 7.00

Refractive index (at 20°C, 0.5893 μm) [4] 1.32844 1.33335

No physical properties are listed for "pure" semi-heavy water, because it cannot be isolated in bulk
quantities. In the liquid state, a few water molecules are always in an ionised state, which means the
hydrogen atoms can exchange among different oxygen atoms. A sample of hypothetical "pure" semi-heavy
water would rapidly transform into a dynamic mixture of 25% light water, 25% heavy water, and 50% semi-
heavy water.

Physical properties obvious by inspection: Heavy water is 10.6% denser than ordinary water, a difference
which is difficult to notice in a sample of it (an early experiment[5] reported not the "slightest difference" in
taste between pure ordinary water and pure heavy water; on the other hand, rats given a choice between
distilled water and heavy water were able to avoid the heavy water based on smell, and it may be possible
that it has a different taste[6]). One of the few ways to demonstrate heavy water's physically different
properties without equipment is to freeze a sample and drop it into normal water. Ice made from heavy
water sinks in normal water. If the normal water is ice-cold this phenomenon may be observed long enough
for a good demonstration, since heavy-water ice has a slightly higher melting temperature (3.8 °C) than
normal ice, and thus holds up very well in ice-cold normal water.[7]

History

Harold Urey discovered the isotope deuterium in 1931 and was later able to concentrate it in
water.[8] Urey's mentor Gilbert Newton Lewisisolated the first sample of pure heavy water by electrolysis in
1933.[9] George de Hevesy and Hoffer used heavy water in 1934 in one of the first biological tracer
experiments, to estimate the rate of turnover of water in the human body. The history of large-quantity
production and use of heavy water in early nuclear experiments is given below.[10] Emilian Bratu and Otto
Redlich studied the autodissociation of heavy water in 1934.[11]

Effect on biological systems

Heavy isotopes of chemical elements have slightly different chemical behaviors, but for most elements the
differences in chemical behavior between isotopes are far too small to use, or even detect. For hydrogen,
however, this is not true. The larger chemical isotope-effects seen with deuterium and tritium manifest
because bond energies in chemistry are determined in quantum mechanics by equations in which the
quantity of reduced mass of the nucleus and electrons appears. This quantity is altered in heavy-hydrogen
compounds (of which deuterium oxide is the most common and familiar) more than for heavy-isotope
substitution in other chemical elements. This isotope effect of heavy hydrogen is magnified further in
biological systems, which are very sensitive to small changes in the solvent properties of water.

Heavy water is the only known chemical substance that affects the period of circadian oscillations,
consistently increasing the length of each cycle. The effect is seen in unicellular organisms, green plants,
isopods, insects, birds, mice, and hamsters. The mechanism is unknown.[12]

To perform their tasks, enzymes rely on their finely tuned networks of hydrogen bonds, both in the active
center with their substrates, and outside the active center, to stabilize their tertiary structures. As a
hydrogen bond with deuterium is slightly stronger[13] than one involving ordinary hydrogen, in a highly
deuterated environment, some normal reactions in cells are disrupted.

Particularly hard-hit by heavy water are the delicate assemblies of mitotic spindle formation necessary
for cell division in eukaryotes. Plants stop growing and seeds do not germinate when given only heavy
water, because heavy water stops eukaryotic cell division.

It has been proposed that low doses of heavy water can slow the aging process by helping the body resist
oxidative damage via the isotope effect.[14] A team at the Institute for the Biology of Ageing, located in
Moscow, conducted an experiment to determine the effect of heavy water on longevity using fruit flies and
found that while large amounts were deadly, smaller quantities increased lifespans by up to 30%.[15]

Effect on animals
Experiments in mice, rats, and dogs[16] have shown that a degree of 25% deuteration causes (sometimes
irreversible) sterility, because neither gametes nor zygotes can develop. High concentrations of heavy
water (90%) rapidly kill fish, tadpoles, flatworms, and Drosophila. Mammals, such as rats, given heavy
water to drink die after a week, at a time when their body water approaches about 50% deuteration. The
mode of death appears to be the same as that in cytotoxic poisoning (such as chemotherapy) or in acute
radiation syndrome (though deuterium is not radioactive), and is due to deuterium's action in generally
inhibiting cell division. It is more toxic to malignant cells than normal cells but the concentrations needed
are too high for regular use.[16] As in chemotherapy, deuterium-poisoned mammals die of a failure of bone
marrow (bleeding and infection) and intestinal-barrier functions (diarrhea and fluid loss).

Notwithstanding the problems of plants and animals in living with too much
deuterium, prokaryotic organisms such as bacteria, which do not have the mitotic problems induced by
deuterium, may be grown and propagated in fully deuterated conditions, resulting in replacement of all
hydrogen atoms in the bacterial proteins and DNA with the deuterium isotope.[16] Full replacement with
heavy atom isotopes can be accomplished in higher organisms with other non-radioactive heavy isotopes
(such as carbon-13, nitrogen-15, and oxygen-18), but this cannot be done for the stable heavy isotope of
hydrogen.
Deuterium oxide is used to enhance boron neutron capture therapy, but this effect does not rely on the
biological effects of deuterium per se, but instead on deuterium's ability to moderate (slow) neutrons
without capturing them.[16]

Toxicity in humans
Because it would take a very large amount of heavy water to replace 25% to 50% of a human being's body
water (which in turn is 70% of body weight) with heavy water, accidental or intentional poisoning with heavy
water is unlikely to the point of practical disregard. For a poisoning, large amounts of heavy water would
need to be ingested without significant normal water intake for many days to produce any noticeable toxic
effects.

18
Oral doses of heavy water in the range of several grams, as well as heavy oxygen O, are routinely used
in human metabolic experiments. See doubly labeled water testing. Since one in about every 6400
hydrogen atoms is deuterium, a 50 kg human containing 32 kg of body water would normally contain
enough deuterium (about 1.1 gram) to make 5.5 grams of pure heavy water, so roughly this dose is
required to double the amount of deuterium in the body.

The American patent U.S. Patent 5,223,269 is for the use of heavy water to treat hypertension (high blood
pressure). A loss of blood pressure may partially explain the reported incidence of dizziness upon ingestion
of heavy water.

Heavy water radiation contamination confusion

Although many people associate heavy water primarily with its use in nuclear reactors, pure heavy water is
not radioactive. Commercial-grade heavy water is slightly radioactive due to minute traces of natural tritium
present in it, but the same is true of ordinary water as well. Heavy water which has been used as a coolant
in nuclear power plants contains substantially more tritium due to neutron bombardment of the deuterium in
the heavy water (tritium is a health risk when ingested in large quantities).

In 1990, a disgruntled employee at the Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station in Canada obtained a
sample (estimated as about a "half cup") of heavy water from the primary heat transport loop of the nuclear
reactor, and loaded it into the employee water cooler. Eight employees drank some of the contaminated
water. The incident was discovered when employees began leaving bioassay urine samples with
elevated tritium levels. The quantity of heavy water involved was far below levels that could induce heavy
water toxicity, but several employees received elevated radiation doses from tritium and neutron-activated
chemicals in the water.[17] This was not an incident of heavy water poisoning, but rather radiation poisoning
from other isotopes in the heavy water. Some news services were not careful to distinguish these points,
and some of the public were left with the impression that heavy water is normally radioactive and more
severely toxic than it is. Even if pure heavy water had been used in the water cooler indefinitely, it is not
likely the incident would have been detected or caused harm, since no employee would be expected to get
much more than 25% of their daily drinking water from such a source.[18]
Production

On Earth, deuterated water, HDO, occurs naturally in regular water at a proportion of about 1 molecule in
3200. This means that 1 in 6400 hydrogen atoms is deuterium, which is 1 part in 3200 by weight (hydrogen
weight). The HDO may be separated from regular water bydistillation or electrolysis and also by various
chemical exchange processes, all of which exploit a kinetic isotope effect. (For more information about the
isotopic distribution of deuterium in water, see Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water.)

The difference in mass between the two hydrogen isotopes translates into a difference in the zero-point
energy and thus into a slight difference in the speed at which the reaction proceeds. Once HDO becomes a
significant fraction of the water, heavy water will become more prevalent as water molecules trade
hydrogen atoms very frequently. Production of pure heavy water by distillation or electrolysis requires a
large cascade of stills or electrolysis chambers and consumes large amounts of power, so the chemical
methods are generally preferred. The most important chemical method is the Girdler sulfide process.

An alternative process,[19] patented by Graham M. Keyser, uses lasers to selectively dissociate

deuterated hydrofluorocarbons to form deuterium fluoride, which can then be separated by physical means.
Although the energy consumption for this process is much less than for the Girdler sulfide process, this
method is currently uneconomical due to the expense of procuring the necessary hydrofluorocarbons.

USSR/Russia
First production was started in 1934 in Dnepropetrovsk, but delayed for period of German invasion. Since
1946 five plants with summary annual production of 20 tonns were constructed.

United States
In 1953, the United States began using heavy water in plutonium production reactors at the Savannah
River Site. The first of the five heavy water reactors came online in 1953, and the last was placed in cold
shutdown in 1996. The SRS reactors were heavy water reactors so that they could produce both plutonium
and tritium for the US nuclear weapons program.

The U.S. developed the Girdler sulfide chemical exchange production process which was first
demonstrated on a large scale at the Dana, Indiana plant in 1945 and at the Savannah River Plant, South
Carolina in 1952. The SRP was operated by DuPont for the USDOE until 1 April 1989 at which time the
operation was taken over by Westinghouse.

India
India is the world's second largest producer of heavy water through its Heavy Water Board.
Norway
Main article: Norwegian heavy water sabotage

"Heavy water" made by Norsk Hydro

In 1934, Norsk Hydro built the first commercial heavy water plant at Vemork, Tinn, with a capacity of 12
tonnes per year.[20] From 1940 and throughout World War II, the plant was under Germancontrol and the
allies decided to destroy the plant and its heavy water to inhibit German development of nuclear weapons.
In late 1942, a planned raid by British airborne troops failed, both gliders crashing. The raiders were killed
in the crash or subsequently executed by the Germans. In the night of 27 February 1943 Operation
Gunnerside succeeded. Norwegian commandos and local resistance managed to demolish small but key
parts of the electrolytic cells, dumping the accumulated heavy water down the factory drains. Had the
German nuclear program followed similar lines of research as the U.S. Manhattan Project, such heavy
water would have been crucial to obtaining plutonium from a nuclear reactor. The Norsk Hydro operation is
one of the great commando sabotage operations of the war.

On 16 November 1943, the allied air forces dropped more than 400 bombs on the site. The allied air raid
prompted the Nazi government to move all available heavy water to Germany for safekeeping. On 20
February 1944, a Norwegian partisan sank the ferry M/F Hydro carrying the heavy water across Lake Tinn,
at the cost of 14 Norwegian civilians' lives, and most of the heavy water was presumably lost. A few of the
barrels were only half full, and therefore could float, and may have been salvaged and transported to
Germany. (These events were dramatized in the 1965 movie, The Heroes of Telemark, and also in a level
of the PlayStation 2/Xbox game, Secret Weapons Over Normandy.)

Recent investigation of production records at Norsk Hydro and analysis of an intact barrel that was
salvaged in 2004 revealed that although the barrels in this shipment contained water of pH 14 — indicative
of the alkaline electrolytic refinement process — they did not contain high concentrations of D2O.[21] Despite
the apparent size of shipment, the total quantity of pure heavy water was quite small, most barrels only
containing 0.5–1% pure heavy water. The Germans would have needed a total of about 5 tons of heavy
water to get a nuclear reactor running. The manifest clearly indicated that there was only half a ton of
heavy water being transported to Germany. The Hydro was carrying far too little heavy water for even one
reactor, let alone the 10 or more tons needed to make enough plutonium for a nuclear weapon.[21]
Canada
As part of its contribution to the Manhattan Project, Canada built and operated a 6 tonnes per year
electrolytic heavy water plant at Trail, BC, which started operation in 1943.

The Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) design of power reactor requires large quantities of heavy
water to act as a neutron moderatorand coolant. AECL ordered two heavy water plants which were built
and operated in Atlantic Canada at Glace Bay (by Deuterium of Canada Limited) and Port
Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia (by General Electric Canada). These plants proved to have significant design,
construction and production problems and so AECL built the Bruce Heavy Water Plant (map location),
which it later sold to Ontario Hydro, to ensure a reliable supply of heavy water for future power plants. The
two Nova Scotia plants were shut down in 1985 when their production proved to be unnecessary.

The Bruce Heavy Water Plant in Ontario was the world's largest heavy water production plant with a
capacity of 700 tonnes per year. It used the Girdler sulfide process to produce heavy water, and required
340,000 tonnes of feed water to produce one tonne of heavy water. It was part of a complex that included
8 CANDU reactors which provided heat and power for the heavy water plant. The site was located
at Douglas Point near Tiverton, Ontario on Lake Huron where it had access to the waters of the Great
Lakes.

The Bruce plant was commissioned in 1979 to provide heavy water for a large increase in Ontario's nuclear
power generation. The plants proved to be significantly more efficient than planned and only three of the
planned four units were eventually commissioned. In addition, the nuclear power programme was slowed
down and effectively stopped due to a perceived oversupply of electricity, later shown to be temporary, in
1993. Improved efficiency in the use and recycling of heavy water plus the over-production at Bruce left
Canada with enough heavy water for its anticipated future needs. Also, the Girdler process involves large
amounts of hydrogen sulfide, raising environmental concerns if there should be a release. The Bruce heavy
water plant was shut down in 1997, after which the plant was gradually dismantled and the site cleared.

Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) is currently researching other more efficient and environmentally
benign processes for creating heavy water. This is essential for the future of the CANDU reactors since
heavy water represents about 20% of the capital cost of each reactor.

Iran
On 26 August 2006, Iranian President Ahmadinejad inaugurated an expansion of the country's heavy-water
plant near Arak. Iran has indicated that the heavy-water production facility will operate in tandem with a 40
MW research reactor that has a scheduled completion date in 2009.[22]

Pakistan
The 50 MWt, heavy water and natural uranium research reactor at Khushab, in Punjab province, is a
central element of Pakistan's program for production of plutonium, deuterium and tritium for advanced
compact warheads (i.e. thermonuclear weapons). Pakistan succeeded in illicitly acquiring a tritium
purification and storage plant, and deuterium and tritium precursor materials from two German firms.[23]

Other countries
Argentina is another declared producer of heavy water, using an ammonia/hydrogen exchange based plant
supplied by Switzerland's Sulzer company.

Romania also produces heavy water at the Drobeta Girdler Sulfide plant and is exporting it from time to
time.

France operated a small plant during the 1950s and 1960s.

Applications
Nuclear magnetic resonance
Deuterium oxide is used in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy when the solvent of interest is water
and the nuclide of interest is hydrogen. This is because the signal from the water solvent would interfere
with the signal from the molecule of interest. Deuterium has a different magnetic
moment from hydrogen and therefore does not contribute to the NMR signal at the hydrogen resonance
frequency.

Organic chemistry
Deuterium oxide is often used as the source of deuterium for preparing specifically labelled isotopologs of
organic compounds. For example, C-H bonds adjacent to ketonic carbonyl groups can be replaced by C-D
bonds, using acid or base catalysis. Trimethylsulfoxonium iodide, made from dimethyl sulfoxide and methyl
iodide can be recrystallized from deuterium oxide, and then dissociated to regenerate methyl iodide and
dimethyl sulfoxide, both deuterium labelled. In cases where specific double labelling by deuterium and
tritium is contemplated, the researcher needs to be aware that deuterium oxide, depending upon age and
origin, can contain some tritium.

Fourier transform spectroscopy

Deuterium oxide is often used instead of water when collecting FTIR spectra of proteins in solution. H2O
creates a strong band that overlaps with the amide I region of proteins. The band from D2O is shifted away
from the amide I region.

Neutron moderator
Heavy water is used in certain types of nuclear reactors where it acts as a neutron moderator to slow down
neutrons so that they are more likely to react with the fissile uranium-235 than with uranium-238 which
captures neutrons without fissioning. The CANDU reactor uses this design. Light water also acts as a
moderator but because light water absorbs more neutrons than heavy water, reactors using light water
must use enriched uranium rather than natural uranium, otherwise criticality is impossible.
Because they do not require uranium enrichment, heavy water reactors are of concern in regards
to nuclear proliferation. The breeding and extraction of plutonium can be a relatively rapid and cheap route
to building a nuclear weapon, as chemical separation of plutonium from fuel is easier than isotopic
separation of U-235 from natural uranium. Among current and past nuclear weapons states, Israel, India,
and North Korea first used plutonium from heavy water moderated reactors burning natural uranium, while
China, South Africa and Pakistan first built weapons using highly enriched uranium. However, in the U.S.,
the first experimental atomic reactor (1942), as well as the Manhattan ProjectHanford production reactors
which produced the plutonium for the Trinity test and Fat Man bombs, all used pure carbon neutron
moderators and functioned with neither enriched uranium nor heavy water. Russian and British plutonium
production also used graphite-moderated reactors.

There is no evidence that civilian heavy water power reactors, such as the CANDU or Atucha designs,
have been used for military production of fissile materials. In states which do not already possess nuclear
weapons, the nuclear material at these facilities is under IAEA safeguards to discourage any such
diversion.

Due to its potential for use in nuclear weapons programs, the possession or import/export of large industrial
quantities of heavy water are subject to government control in several countries. Suppliers of heavy water
and heavy water production technology typically apply IAEA(International Atomic Energy Agency)
administered safeguards and material accounting to heavy water. (In Australia, the Nuclear Non-
Proliferation (Safeguards) Act 1987.) In the U.S. and Canada, non-industrial quantities of heavy water (i.e.,
in the gram to kg range) are routinely available without special license through chemical supply dealers and
commercial companies such as the world's former major producer Ontario Hydro. Current (2006) cost of a
kilogram of 99.98% reactor-purity heavy water, is about $600 to $700. Smaller quantities of reasonable
purity (99.9%) may be purchased from chemical supply houses at prices of roughly $1 per gram.[24]

Neutrino detector
The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) in Sudbury, Ontario used 1000 tonnes of heavy water on loan
from Atomic Energy of Canada Limited. The neutrino detector is 6,800 feet (2,100 m) underground in a
deep mine, in order to shield it from muons produced by cosmic rays. SNO was built to answer the
question of whether or not electron-type neutrinos produced by fusion in the Sun (the only type the Sun
should be producing directly, according to theory) might be able to turn into other types of neutrinos on the
way to Earth. SNO detects the Čerenkov radiation in the water from high-energy electrons produced from
electron-type neutrinos as they undergo reactions with neutrons in deuterium, turning them into protons
and electrons (only the electrons move fast enough to be detected in this manner). SNO also detects the
same radiation from neutrino↔electron scattering events, which again produces high energy electrons
These two reactions are produced only by electron-type neutrinos. The use of deuterium is critical to the
SNO function, because all three "flavours" (types) of neutrinos[25] may be detected in a third type of
reaction, neutrino-disintegration, in which a neutrino of any type (electron, muon, or tau) scatters from a
deuterium nucleus (deuteron), transferring enough energy to break up the loosely bound deuteron into a
free neutron and proton. This event is detected when the free neutron is absorbed by 35Cl− present from
NaCl which has been deliberately dissolved in the heavy water, causing emission of characteristic capture
gamma rays. Thus, in this experiment, heavy water not only provides the transparent medium necessary to
produce and visualize Čerenkov radiation, but it also provides deuterium to detect exotic mu type (μ) and
tau (τ) neutrinos, as well as a non-absorbent moderator medium to preserve free neutrons from this
reaction, until they can be absorbed by an easily detected neutron-activated isotope.

Metabolic rate testing in physiology/biology

Heavy water is employed as part of a mixture with H218O for a common and safe test of mean metabolic
rate in humans and animals undergoing their normal activities. This metabolic test is usually called
the doubly labeled water test.

Tritium production
See also: Tritium#Deuterium

Tritium is the active substance in self-powered lighting and controlled nuclear fusion, its other uses
including autoradiography and radioactive labeling. It is also used in nuclear weapon design for boosted
fission weapons and initiators. Some is created in heavy water moderated reactors when deuterium
captures a neutron. This reaction has a small cross-section (the imaginary neutron-capturing area around
the nucleus) and produces only small amounts of tritium, although enough to justify cleaning tritium from
the moderator every few years to reduce the environmental risk of tritium escape.

Producing a lot of tritium in this way would need reactors with very high neutron fluxes, or with a very high
proportion of heavy water to nuclear fuel and very low neutron absorption by other reactor material. The
tritium would then have to be recovered by isotope separation from a much larger quantity of deuterium,
unlike production from lithium-6 (the present method), where only chemical separation is needed.

Deuterium's absorption cross section for thermal neutrons is 0.52 millibarns (barn=10-28 m², milli=1/1000),
while oxygen-16's is 0.19 millibarns and oxygen-17's is 0.24 barns. 17O makes up 0.038% of
natural oxygen, making the overall cross section 0.28 millibarns. Therefore in D2O with natural oxygen,
21% of neutron captures are on oxygen, rising higher as 17O builds up from neutron capture on 16O.
Also, 17O emits an alpha particle on capture, producing radioactive carbon-14.
References

1. ^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online

corrected version: (2006–) "heavy water".

2. ^ Is heavy water dangerous?

3. ^ Harold Clayton Urey (1893-1981)

4. ^ "RefractiveIndex.INFO". Retrieved 2010-01-21.

5. ^ "CONCERNING THE TASTE OF HEAVY WATER - Urey and Failla 81 (2098): 273 -

Science". Sciencemag.org. 1935-03-15.doi:10.1126/science.81.2098.273-a. Retrieved 2010-08-14.

6. ^ "ScienceDirect - Physiology & Behavior : Taste responses to deuterium oxide".

Dx.doi.org. doi:10.1016/0031-9384(79)90124-0.

7. ^ Gray, Theodore (2007). "How 2.0". Popular Science. Retrieved 2008-01-21.

8. ^ H. C. Urey, Ferdinand G. Brickwedde, G. M. Murphy (1932). "A Hydrogen Isotope of Mass

2". Physical Review 39: 164–165.doi:10.1103/PhysRev.39.164.

9. ^ Lewis, G. N.; MacDonald, R. T. (1933). "Concentration of H2 Isotope". The Journal of

Chemical Physics 1 (6): 341. doi:10.1063/1.1749300.edit

10. ^ Chris Waltham (20 June 2002). "An Early History of Heavy Water". arXiv:physics/0206076.

11. ^ Em. Bratu, E. Abel, O. Redlich, Die elektrolytische Dissoziation des schweren Wassers;

vorläufige Mitttelung, Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie, 170, 153 (1934)

12. ^ Pittendrigh, C. S.; Caldarola, P. C.; Cosbey, E. S. (July 1973). "A Differential Effect of Heavy

Water on Temperature-Dependent and Temperature-Compensated Aspects of the Circadian System

of Drosophila pseudoobscura". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 70 (7): 2037–

2041.doi:10.1073/pnas.70.7.2037. PMC 433660. PMID 4516204.

13. ^ {{Katz, J.J. 1965. Chemical and biological studies with deuterium. 39th Annual Priestly

Lecture, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pa. pp. 1–110|date=August 2008}}

14. ^ Mikhail S. Shchepinov (1 March 2007). "Reactive Oxygen Species, Isotope Effect, Essential

Nutrients, and Enhanced Longevity". Rejuvenation Research 10 (1): 47–

60. doi:10.1089/rej.2006.0506. PMID 17378752.

15. ^ Graham Lawton (29 November 2008). "Would eating heavy atoms lengthen our lives?". New
Scientist: 36–39.

16. ^ a b c d D. J. Kushner, Alison Baker, and T. G. Dunstall (1999). "Pharmacological uses and

perspectives of heavy water and deuterated compounds". Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 77 (2): 79–

88. doi:10.1139/cjpp-77-2-79. PMID 10535697. "used in boron neutron capture therapy ... D2O is more

toxic to malignant than normal animal cells ... Protozoa are able to withstand up to 70% D20. Algae and
bacteria can adapt to grow in 100% D2O".

17. ^ "Point Lepreau in Canada". NNI (No Nukes Inforesource). Archived from the original on

2007-07-10. Retrieved 2007-09-10.

18. ^ Associated Press (6 March 1990). "Radiation Punch Nuke Plant Worker Charged With

Spiking Juice". Philadelphia Daily News. Retrieved 2006-11-30.

19. ^ "Method for isotope replenishment in an exchange liquid used in a laser". Google.com.

Retrieved 2010-08-14.

20. ^ See Norsk Hydro Rjukan

21. ^ a b NOVA (November 8, 2005). "Hitler's Sunken Secret (transcript)". NOVA Web site.

Retrieved 2008-10-08.

22. ^ "Iran's president launches a new nuclear project". Telegraph.co.uk. 27 August 2006.

Archived from the original on 2007-07-13. Retrieved 2007-09-10.

23. ^ "Khushab Heavy Water Plant". Fas.org. Retrieved 2010-08-14.

24. ^ Fisher Scientific, http://www.fishersci.com

25. ^ "The SNO Detector". The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory Institute, Queen's University at

Kingston. Retrieved 2007-09-10.

 Water softening
Water softening is the reduction of the concentration of calcium, magnesium, and other ions in hard water.
These "hardness ions" can cause a variety of undesired effects including interfering with the action
of soaps, the build up of limescale, which can foul plumbing, andgalvanic corrosion.[1] Conventional water-
softening appliances intended for household use depend on an ion-exchange resin in which hardness ions
are exchanged for sodium ions. Water softening may be desirable where the source of water is
hard.[2] However, hard water also conveys some benefits to health by providing dietary calcium and
magnesium and reducing the solubility of potentially toxic metal ions such as lead and copper[3].

Contents

 1 Methods for water softening

o 1.1 Ion-exchange resin devices

 1.1.1 How it works

o 1.2 Regeneration

 2 Other methods

o 2.1 Lime softening

o 2.2 Chelating agents

 3 Health effects

o 3.1 Effects of sodium

 4 See also

 5 References

 6 External links

Methods for water softening

Water softening methods mainly rely on the removal of Ca2+ and Mg2+ from a solution or the sequestration
of these ions, i.e. binding them to a molecule that removes their ability to form scale or interfere with
detergents. Removal is achieved by ion exchange and by precipitation methods. Sequestration entails the
addition of chemical compounds called sequestration (or chelating) agents.

Since Ca2+ and Mg2+ exist as nonvolatile salts, they can be removed by distilling the water, but distillation is
too expensive in most cases (rainwater is soft because it is, in effect, distilled).

Ion-exchange resin devices

Ion-exchange materials contain sodium ions (Na+) that are electrostatically bound and that readily are
replaced by hardness ions such as Ca2+ and Mg2+. Ion exchange resins are organic
polymers containing anionic functional groups to which the Na+ is bound. Minerals calledzeolites also
exhibits ion-exchange properties; these minerals are widely used in laundry detergents.
How it works
Main article: Ion chromatography

The water to be treated passes through a bed of the resin. Negatively-charged resins absorb and bind
metal ions, which are positively charged. The resins initially contain univalent (1+) ions, most
commonly sodium, but sometimes also hydrogen (H+) or potassium (K+).Divalent calcium and magnesium
ions in the water replace these univalent ions, which are released into the water. The "harder" the water,
the more hydrogen, sodium or potassium ions are released from the resin and into the water.

Resins are also available to remove carbonate, bi-carbonate and sulphate ions which are absorbed and
hydroxyl ions released from the resin. Both types of resin may be provided in a single water softener.

Regeneration
The resin's capacity is gradually exhausted and eventually it contains only divalent ions, Mg2+ and Ca2+ for
cation exchange resins, and SO42- for anion exchange resins. At this stage, the resin must be regenerated.
If a cationic resin is used (to remove calcium and magnesium ions) then regeneration is usually effected by
passing a concentrated brine, usually of sodium chloride or potassium chloride, or hydrochloric acid
solution through them. For anionic resins, regeneration typically uses a solution of sodium hydroxide (lye)
or potassium hydroxide. The salts used for regeneration are released into the soil or sewer.

In industrial scale water softening plants, the effluent flow from re-generation process can precipitate scale
that can interfere with sewerage systems.

Other methods
Lime softening
Main article: Lime softening

Chelating agents
Main article: Chelation

Chelators are used in chemical analysis, as water softeners, and are ingredients in many commercial
products such as shampoos and food preservatives. Citric acid is used to soften water in soaps
and laundry detergents. A commonly used synthetic chelator is EDTA.
Health effects
Effects of sodium
For people on a low-sodium diet, the increase in sodium levels (for systems releasing sodium) in the water
can be significant, especially when treating very hard water. For example:

A person who drinks two litres (2L) of softened, extremely hard water (assume 30 gpg) will consume about
480 mg more sodium (2L x 30 gpg x 8 mg/L/gpg = 480 mg), than if unsoftened water is consumed.

This amount is significant, The American Heart Association (AHA) suggests that the 3 percent of the
population who must follow a severe, salt-restricted diet should not consume more than 400 mg of sodium
a day. AHA suggests that no more than 10 percent of this sodium intake should come from water. The
E A’s draft guideline of 20 mg/L for water protects people who are most susceptible [4] Most people who
are concerned with the added sodium in the water generally have one tap in the house that bypasses the
softener, or have a reverse osmosisunit installed for the drinking water and cooking water, which was
designed for desalinisation of sea water. Potassium chloride can also be used instead of sodium chloride,
which would have the added benefit of helping to lower blood pressure, although costly. However, this
should be done carefully as elevated potassium levels are dangerous and can lead to complications such
as cardiac arrhythmia, although a person with normal kidney function would have to consume a large
amount of potassium to develop hyperkalemia.

]See also

 Ion exchange

 Water purification

 Descaling agent

 Desalination

References

1. ^ Stephen Lower (July 2007). "Hard water and water softening". Retrieved 2007-10-08.

2. ^ "Water Softeners". Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation. Retrieved 2010-01-29.

3. ^ The advantages and disadvantages of hard water

4. ^ Michael H. Bradshaw, G. Morgan Powell (October 2002). "Sodium in Drinking Water". Kansas State
University. Archived from the original on 2007-03-15. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
Milli-Q

See also: purified water

Milli-Q refers to water that has been purified and deionized to a high degree (typically 18 2 MΩ·cm) by a
water purification systems manufactured by Millipore Corporation. It is also a registered trademark of
Millipore. The term is also used to refer to water produced by any similar system.

Milli-Q water uses resin filters and deionization to purify the water. The system monitors the ion
concentration by measuring the electrical resistivity of the water. Higher resistivity means fewer charge-
carrying ions. Most Milli-Q systems dispense the water through a 0 22 μm membrane filter

It is capable of producing water pure enough to get reproducibility and accuracies within parts per million
when using ion mass spectrometers in analytical geochemistry.[1] Other users of this system
include microbiology[2] and atmospheric science.[3]

References

1. ^ Yokoyama, Tetsuya; Makishima, Akio; Nakamura, Eizo (May 1999). "Evaluation of the

coprecipitation of incompatible trace elements with fluoride during silicate rock dissolution by acid
digestion". Chemical Geology 157 (3-4): 175–187. doi:10.1016/S0009-2541(98)00206-X.

2. ^ Muyzer, G.; de Waal, E C; Uitterlinden, A G (March 1993). "Profiling of complex microbial

populations by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of polymerase chain reaction-amplified

genes coding for 16S rRNA.". Applied Environmental Microbiology 59 (3): 695–

700. PMC 202176. PMID 7683183.

3. ^ Iverfeldt, �ke (April 1991). "Occurrence and turnover of atmospheric mercury over the nordic

countries". Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 56 (1): 251–265. doi:10.1007/BF00342275. ISSN 0049-6979.
 Hydrogen production
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Hydrogen production is the industrial method for generating hydrogen. Currently the dominant technology
for direct production is steam reforming from hydrocarbons. Hydrogen is also produced as a byproduct of
other processes and managed with hydrogen pinch.[1] Many other methods are known
including electrolysis and thermolysis. The discovery and development of less expensive methods of
production of bulk hydrogen is relevant to the establishment of a hydrogen economy.[2]

Contents
[hide]

 1 Hydrogen waste stream

 2 From hydrocarbons

o 2.1 Steam reforming

o 2.2 Partial oxidation

o 2.3 Plasma reforming

o 2.4 Coal

 3 From water

o 3.1 Electrolysis and thermolysis

o 3.2 Sulfur-Iodine Cycle

 4 From urine

 5 Biohydrogen routes

o 5.1 Fermentative hydrogen production

o 5.2 Enzymatic hydrogen generation

o 5.3 Biocatalysed electrolysis

 6 Other methods

 7 Renewable (or "Green") Hydrogen Production

 8 See also

 9 References

 10 External links
Hydrogen waste stream

Hydrogen is used for the creation of ammonia for fertilizer via the Haber process, converting heavy
petroleum sources to lighter fractions viahydrocracking and petroleum fractions (dehydrocyclization and
the aromatization process). It was common to vent the surplus of hydrogen, nowadays the plants are
balanced with hydrogen pinch which creates the possibility of collecting the hydrogen for further use.

Hydrogen is also produced as a by-product of industrial chlorine production by electrolysis. It can be

cooled, compressed and purified for use in other processes on site or sold to a customer via pipeline,
cylinders or trucks.

From hydrocarbons
Steam reforming
Fossil fuel currently is the main source of hydrogen production.[3] Hydrogen can be generated from natural
gas with approximately 80% efficiency, or from other hydrocarbons to a varying degree of efficiency.
Specifically, bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam reforming of methane or natural gas[4] At high
temperatures (700–1100 °C), steam (H2O) reacts with methane (CH4) to yield syngas.

CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2 + 191.7 kJ/mol[5]

Gasification

In a second stage, further hydrogen is generated through the lower-temperature water gas shift
reaction, performed at about 130 °C:

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 - 40.4 kJ/mol

Essentially, the oxygen (O) atom is stripped from the additional water (steam) to oxidize CO to
CO2. This oxidation also provides energy to maintain the reaction. Additional heat required to
drive the process is generally supplied by burning some portion of the methane.

Steam reforming generates carbon dioxide (CO2). Since the production is concentrated in one
facility, it is possible to separate the CO2 and dispose of it properly, for example by injecting it in
an oil or gas reservoir (see carbon capture), although this is not currently done in most cases. A
carbon dioxide injection project has been started by a Norwegian company StatoilHydro in
the North Sea, at the Sleipner field. However, even if the carbon dioxide is not sequestered,
overall producing hydrogen from natural gas and using it for a hydrogen vehicle only emits half
the carbon dioxide that a gasoline car would.[citation needed] This is disputed in The Hype about
Hydrogen: Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate, a book by Joseph J. Romm,
published in 2004 by Island Press and updated in 2005. Romm says that directly burning fossil
fuels generates less CO2 than hydrogen production.[citation needed]

Integrated steam reforming / co-generation - It is possible to combine steam reforming and co-
generation of steam and power into a single plant. This can deliver benefits for an oil
refinery because it is more efficient than separate hydrogen, steam and power plants. Air
Productsrecently built an integrated steam reforming / co-generation plant in Port Arthur,
Texas.[6]

Partial oxidation
The partial oxidation reaction occurs when a substoichiometric fuel-air mixture is
partially combusted in a reformer, creating a hydrogen-richsyngas. A distinction is made
between thermal partial oxidation (TPOX) and catalytic partial oxidation (CPOX).

 General reaction equation:

 Possible reaction equation (heating oil):

 Possible reaction equation (coal):

Plasma reforming
The Kværner-process or Kvaerner carbon black & hydrogen process (CB&H)[3] is a plasma
reforming method, developed in the 1980s by aNorwegian company of the same name, for the
production of hydrogen and carbon black from liquid hydrocarbons (CnHm). Of the available
energy of the feed, approximately 48% is contained in the hydrogen, 40% is contained
in activated carbon and 10% in superheated steam.[7]CO2 is not produced in the process.

A variation of this process is presented in 2009 using plasma arc waste disposal technology for
the creation of hydrogen, heat and carbon from methane and natural gas in a plasma
converter[8]

Coal
Coal can be converted into syngas and methane, also known as town gas, via coal gasification.
Syngas consists of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.[9] Another method for conversion is low
temperature and high temperature coal carbonization.[10]
From water
Main article: Water splitting

Electrolysis and thermolysis

Hydrogen is produced on an industrial scale by the electrolysis of water. While this can be done
with a few volts in a simple apparatus like aHofmann voltameter,[11] larger scale production
usually relies on high-pressure and high-temperature systems to improve the energy efficiency
of electrolysis. Experimental processes include electrolysis at very high temperatures (800 C),
so that much of the energy required to release hydrogen is supplied as heat instead of
electricity. Various catalytic agents are being studied to improve the efficiency of high-
temperature electrolysis.

Water spontaneously dissociates at around 2500 C, but this thermolysis occurs at temperatures
too high for usual process piping and equipment. Catalysts are required to reduce the
dissociation temperature.

Sulfur-Iodine Cycle
The sulfur-iodine cycle (S-I cycle) is a thermochemical process which generates hydrogen from
water, but at a much higher efficiency than water splitting. The sulfur and iodine used in the
process are recovered and reused, and not consumed by the process. It is well suited to
production of hydrogen by high-temperature nuclear reactors.

From urine

Hydrogen can also be made from urine. Using urine, hydrogen production is 332% more energy
efficient than using water.[12][13] The research was conducted by Geraldine Botte from the Ohio
University. Recently, Dr. Shanwen Tao of the Heriot-Watt University has invented aCarbamide
Power System Fuel Cell that can immediately convert urine into electricity.[14]

Biohydrogen routes
Biomass and waste streams can be converted into biohydrogen with biomass gasification,
steam reforming or biological conversion like biocatalysed electrolysis or fermentative hydrogen
production:

Fermentative hydrogen production

Main articles: Fermentative hydrogen production and Dark fermentation

Fermentative hydrogen production is the fermentative conversion of organic substrate

to biohydrogen manifested by a diverse group bacteriausing multi enzyme systems involving
three steps similar to anaerobic conversion. Dark fermentation reactions do not require light
energy, so they are capable of constantly producing hydrogen from organic compounds
throughout the day and night. Photofermentation differs from dark fermentation because it only
proceeds in the presence of light. For example photo-fermentation with Rhodobacter
sphaeroides SH2C can be employed to convert small molecular fatty acids into hydrogen.[15]

Biohydrogen can be produced in bioreactors that utilize feedstocks, the most common
feedstock being waste streams. The process involves bacteria feeding on hydrocarbons and
exhaling hydrogen and CO2. The CO2 can be sequestered successfully by several methods,
leaving hydrogen gas. A prototype hydrogen bioreactor using waste as a feedstock is in
operation at Welch's grape juice factory in North East, Pennsylvania (U.S.).

Enzymatic hydrogen generation

Due to the Thauer limit (four H2/glucose) for dark fermentation, a non-natural enzymatic
pathway was designed that can generate 12 moles of hydrogen per mole of glucose units of
polysaccharides and water in 2007.[16] The stoichiometric reaction is C6H10O5+ 7 H2O --> 12
H2 + 6 CO2. The key technology is cell-free synthetic enzymatic pathway biotransformation
(SyPaB).[17][18] A biochemist can understand it as "glucose oxidation by using water as oxidant".
A chemist can describe it as "water splitting by energy in carbohydrate". A thermodynamics
scientist can describe it as the first entropy-driving chemical reaction that can produce hydrogen
by absorbing waste heat. In 2009, cellulosic materials were first used to generate high-yield
hydrogen.[19] Furthermore, the use of carbohydrate as a high-density hydrogen carrier was
proposed so to solve the largest obstacle to the hydrogen economy and propose the concept of
sugar fuel cell vehicles.[20]

Biocatalysed electrolysis

A microbial electrolysis cell

Main articles: electrohydrogenesis and microbial fuel cell

Besides dark fermentation, electrohydrogenesis (electrolysis using microbes) is another

possibility. Usingmicrobial fuel cells, wastewater or plants can be used to generate power.
Biocatalysed electrolysis should not be confused with biological hydrogen production, as the
latter only uses algae and with the latter, the algae itself generates the hydrogen instantly,
where with biocatalysed electrolysis, this happens after running through the microbial fuel cell
and a variety of aquatic plants[21] can be used. These include reed sweetgrass, cordgrass, rice,
tomatoes, lupines, algae [22]
Other methods

 Synthetic biology

Renewable (or "Green") Hydrogen Production

Currently there are several practical ways of producing hydrogen in a renewable industrial
process. One is to use landfill gas to produce hydrogen in a steam reformer, and the other is to
use renewable power to produce hydrogen from electrolysis. Hydrogen fuel, when produced by
renewable sources of energy like wind or solar power, is a renewable fuel.