Answers to exercises from

Materials Science and Engineering

William D. Callister, David G. Rethwisch
8th / 9th edition, SI version

and

extra handout exercises

used in the course

Structure and Properties of Materials

4MA00
 1 Atomic structure and bonding
Exercises from 9th edition: indicated in black
Exercises from 8th edition: indicated in grey

2.1 / 2.1 Atomic mass is the mass of an individual atom, whereas atomic weight is the average (weigh-
ted) of the atomic masses of an atom’s naturally occurring isotopes.

2.3 / 2.3 (a) 1.66 · 10−24 g/amu

2.4 / 2.4 (a) Two important quantum-mechanical concepts associated with the Bohr model of the atom
are that electrons are particles moving in discrete orbitals, and electron energy is quantized
into shells.

2.8 / 2.8 Neon, Argon.

2.9 / 2.9 Each of the elements in Group VIIA has five p electrons

2.13 / 2.13 1.80 · 10−10 N

dE N A nB
2.14 / 2.14 (a) = (1+1) − (n+1) = 0
dr r r
 A  1/(1−n)
(b) r 0 =
nB
A B
(c) E 0 = −   1/(1−n) +   n/(1−n)
A A
nB nB
2.15 / 2.15 (a)

(b) r 0 = 0.28 nm; E 0 = −4.6 eV

(c) r 0 = 0.279 nm; E 0 = −4.57 eV
2.18 / 2.18 (a) The main differences between the various forms of primary bonding are:

– Ionic: there is electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

– Covalent: there is electron sharing between two adjacent atoms such that each atom
assumes a stable electron configuration.
– Metallic: the positively charged ion cores are shielded from one another, and also
"glued"together by the sea of valence electrons.

2.19 / 2.20 Approximately 345 kJ/mol / 3.6 eV/at.

2.22 / 2.19 Note: use periodic table with electronegativities from lecture slides and not from Figure 2.9 in
Callister 9th ed.
TiO2 : %IC = 63.2 %
ZnTe: %IC = 6.1 %
CsCl: %IC = 73.4 %
InSb: %IC = 1.0 %
MgCl2 : %IC = 55.5 %
 2 Crystal structures
Exercises from 9th edition: indicated in black
Exercises from 8th edition: indicated in grey

4.1 / 3.2 6.62 · 10−29 m3

4R
4.2 / 3.3 a = √
3
8πR 3 /3
4.3 / 3.5 APF = √ = 0.68
64R 3 /3 3
8πR 3
4.5 / 3.6 APF = √ = 0.74
12 3(1.633)R 3
4.6 / 3.7 7.90 g/cm3

4.7 / 3.8 0.136 nm

√ −2
4.57 / 3.54 (a) PD (100) = 14 R −2 , PD (111) = 1
6 3R ≈ 0.29R −2

3.12 / 3.30

3.13 / 3.31 [01̄1̄], [2̄10], [112], [112̄]

3.17 / 3.35 [101̄1], [011̄0], [2̄2̄43], [12̄10]

3.18 / 3.36
3.23 / 3.41 (403), (1̄1̄2)

3.24 / 3.42 (322̄), (1̄01)

3.25 / 3.43 (32̄4), (221)

3.28 / 3.50 (a) (0002) → (0001)

(b) (101̄0)
(c) (1̄101)
(d) (2̄112)

3.29 / 3.51
 3 Defects in crystals & deformation mechanisms
Exercises from 9th edition: indicated in black
Exercises from 8th edition: indicated in grey

6.1 / 4.1 4.30 · 10−5

6.10 / 4.5 FCC: r = 0.41R, BCC: r = 0.291R
6.16 / 4.8 C Pb = 10.0 wt%, C Sn = 90.0 wt%
6.18 / 4.10 C Sn
0 = 72.0 at%, C 0 = 28.0 at%
Pb

6.22 / 4.14 6.05 · 1028 atoms/m3

6.D1 / 4.D1 C Li = 2.061 wt%
8.25 / 6.25 (a) E = 200 GPa
(b) 300 MPa
(c) 400 MPa
(d) 515 MPa
9.5 / 7.5 (a) A slip system is a crystallographic plane, and, within that plane, a direction along which
dislocation motion (or slip) occurs.
(b) All metals do not have the same slip system. The reason for this is that for most metals,
the slip system will consist of the most densely packed crystallographic plane, and within
that plane the most closely packed direction. This plane and direction will vary from crystal
structure to crystal structure.
9.6 / 7.6 (a) (100): 0.25/R 2
(110): 0.177/R 2
(111): 0.29/R 2
9.7 / 7.7

9.8 / 7.8
9.11 / 7.11 E.g. (111)[11̄0]: f = 0.408

9.13 / 7.13 (a) 62.4◦

(b) τcrss = 0.74 MPa

9.16 / 7.16 (a) (110)[1̄11]: 0.94 MPa, (101)[1̄11]: 0 MPa

(b) (110)[1̄11]

9.21 / 7.21 Hexagonal close packed metals are typically more brittle than FCC and BCC metals because
there are fewer slip systems in HCP.
 4 Manipulation of mechanical properties
Exercises from 9th edition: indicated in black
Exercises from 8th edition: indicated in grey

9.2 / 7.2 A planar region of vacancies will exist between the dislocations as:

9.22 / 7.22 See sections 9.8, 9.9, and 9.10 (7.8, 7.9, and 7.10)
1
9.23 / 7.23 (a) k y = 12.5 MPa mm 2 , σ0 = 25 MPa
(b) 305 MPa

9.24 / 7.24 1.54 · 10−2 mm

9.28 / 7.28 9.17 mm

9.36 / 7.36 (a) The difference in internal energy between the strained and unstrained material.
(b) The reduction in grain boundary energy as the total grain boundary area decreases.

9.41 / 7.41 87 MPa

9.D6 / 7.D6 Cold work to 12.8 mm, anneal, then cold work (22 %CW) to give a final diameter of 11.3 mm.

9.D7 / 7.D7 Cold work to 7.4 mm, anneal, then cold work to final diameter of 6.3 mm.
Answers extra questions 4
Only brief answers are given without explanation.

1 (a) BCC: 1) slip on parallel planes, 2) slip on intersecting planes, 3) cross-slip of screw disloca-
tions.
HCP: an HCP lattice can only slip on parallel planes.
(b) HCP: less slip systems.
2 (a) Changing interatomic distances.
(b) “Permanent” deformation. Crystallographic planes are being displaced (sheared) with res-
pect to each other by the movement of dislocations.
(c) Dislocation pile-ups at the grain boundaries.
3 (i): Increase of dislocation density.
(ii): Dislocations in pile-ups can move more easily in the reverse direction.
(iii): Texture: reorientation of grains during deformation.
4 (a) Yield phenomenon.
(b) Yield phenomenon will lead to local yield zones at the surface (Lüders bands).
(c) Cold working the steel by rolling or drawing.
5 Brittle fracture. When the hardness is increased, the material will be even more brittle.
6 (a) Cold work: increase of dislocation density.
(b) Grain refinement.
(c) Recovery or recrystallization in the filament: lower dislocation density.
7 (a) Solid solution hardening.
(b) From pure nickel, the same effect occurs when adding copper atoms.
(c) Cold work, grain refinement (recrystallization).
8 (a) Plastic deformation results in an increase of the dislocation density. This causes elastic
stress fields in the lattice that impede further movement of dislocations.
(b) Recovery: dislocation motion → annihilation of dislocations. Recrystallisation: new
crystals by nucleation at sites with the largest dislocation density and producing crystals with
a low dislocation density.
9 (a) Recrystallization: in a locally energetically favourable configuration of atoms, a nucleus
of a new grain develops, which will further grow. Important parameters: dislocation density
(number of nuclei), temperature (growth rate of nuclei) and time.
(b) High nucleus density.
(c) Very low dislocation density after recrystallization.
(d) Recrystallizing, then applying a small deformation (just above the recrystallization thres-
hold) and then recrystallizing it again.
(e) Aluminum: FCC, many (12) slip systems. Zinc: HCP, 3 slip systems, the availability of its 3
slip systems more strongly depends on the orientation of the single crystal.
10 (a) B, higher amount of rolling so more cold work and therefore more strain hardening.
(b) B, higher amount of cold work so higher dislocation density and higher nucleation density,
finer grain structure and consequently a higher yield strength.
 5 Thermodynamics and phase diagrams
Exercises from 9th edition: indicated in black
Exercises from 8th edition: indicated in grey

11.8 / 9.8 (a) ε + η; C ε = 87 wt% Zn-13 wt% Cu; Cη = 97 wt% Zn-3 wt% Cu
(c) liquid; C L = 55 wt% Ag-45 wt% Cu
(e) β + γ ; C β = 49 wt% Zn-51 wt% Cu; Cγ = 58 wt% Zn-42 wt% Cu
(g) α; C α = 63.8 wt% Ni-36.2 wt% Cu

11.11 / 9.11 (a) 1365 ◦ C

(b) C L = 66 wt% Ni
(c) 1380 ◦ C
(d) C α = 83 wt% Ni

11.12 / 9.12 (a) 560 ◦ C

(b) C α = 21 wt% Pb-79 wt% Mg
(c) 465 ◦ C
(d) C L = 67 wt% Pb-33 wt% Mg

11.14 / 9.14 (a) Wε = 0.70; Wη = 0.30

(c) WL = 1.0
(e) Wβ = 0.56; Wγ = 0.44
(g) Wα = 1.0

11.15 / 9.15 (a) 295 ◦ C

(b) 0.276 kg

11.16 / 9.16 (a) 0.28 kg

(b) 1.46 kg

11.20 / 9.20 20 wt% B-80 wt% A

Extra exercises thermodynamics 5
1 (a) ∆S m = 9.45 J/K
(b) ∆G 1000 ◦ C = −12.0 kJ
(c) ∆G 500 ◦ C = −7.30 kJ.

2
T1 T2 T3

S S
L
G

G
G

L
L
S

0 1 0 1 0 1
CB CB CB
 6 Kinetics and microstructures
Exercises from 9th edition: indicated in black
Exercises from 8th edition: indicated in grey

7.3 / 5.3 (a) With vacancy diffusion, atomic motion is from one lattice site to an adjacent vacancy. Self-
diffusion and the diffusion of substitutional impurities proceed via this mechanism. On the
other hand, atomic motion is from interstitial site to adjacent interstitial site for the interstitial
diffusion mechanism.
(b) Interstitial diffusion is normally more rapid than vacancy diffusion because: (1) interstitial
atoms, being smaller, are more mobile; and (2) the probability of an empty adjacent interstitial
site is greater than for a vacancy adjacent to a host (or substitutional impurity) atom.

7.8 / 5.8 4.24 · 10−11 m2 /s

7.18 / 5.18 879 ◦ C

7.19 / 5.19 1245 ◦ C

11.32 / 9.32 (a) Wα = 0.74, Wβ = 0.26

(b) Wα 0 = 0.66, We = 0.34
(c) Wα 00 = 0.08

11.36 / 9.36

11.46 / 9.46 Wα = 0.89, WFe3 C = 0.11

11.48 / 9.48 C 0 = 0.42 wt% C

11.49 / 9.49 α-ferrite

11.50 / 9.50 (a) Fe3 C
(b) 0.83 kg of total ferrite, 0.17 kg of cementite
(c) pearlite: 0.93 kg, proeutectoid phase (cementite): 0.07 kg
(d)

11.51 / 9.51 (a) Ferrite

(b) 2.27 kg of total ferrite; 0.23 kg of total cementite
(c) 2.12 kg of pearlite, 0.38 kg of proeutectoid ferrite
(d)

11.52 / 9.52 Wp = 0.38, Wα 0 = 0.62

11.53 / 9.53 C 0 = 0.55 wt% C

11.62 / 9.62 1: eutectoid ferrite exists in addition to proeutectoid ferrite: C 0 = 0.72 wt% C
2: a hypereutectoid alloy wherein all of the ferrite is eutectoid ferrite: C 0 = 1.09 wt% C
 7 Advanced manipulation of properties
Exercises from 9th edition: indicated in black
Exercises from 8th edition: indicated in grey

12.18 / 10.18 (a) 50 % coarse pearlite, 50 % martensite

(b) 100 % spheroidite
(c) 50 % pearlite (medium), 25 % bainite, 25 % martensite
(d) 100 % martensite
(e) 40 % bainite, 60 % martensite
(f) 100 % bainite
(g) 100 % fine pearlites
(h) 100 % tempered martensite

12.19 / 10.19

12.20 / 10.20 (b) Proeutectoid ferrite and martensite

(c) Bainite
(e) Proeutectoid ferrite, pearlite (medium), bainite, and martensite
(g) Proeutectoid ferrite, pearlite, and martensite
12.27 / 10.27 (a) Martensite
(b) Martensite and bainite
(c) Martensite, proeutectoid ferrite, and bainite
(d) Martensite, proeutectoid ferrite, pearlite, and bainite

12.30 / 10.30 The hardness and strength of iron-carbon alloys that have microstructures consisting of α-
ferrite and cementite phases depend on the boundary area between the two phases. The greater
this area, the harder and stronger the alloy inasmuch as these boundaries impede the motion of
dislocations. Fine pearlite is harder and stronger than coarse pearlite because the alternating
ferrite-cementite layers are thinner for fine, and therefore, there is more phase boundary area.
The phase boundary area between the sphere-like cementite particles and the ferrite matrix is
less in spheroidite than for the alternating layered microstructure found in coarse pearlite.

12.31 / 10.31 1) There are relatively few operable slip systems for the body-centered tetragonal crystal struc-
ture,
2) Virtually all of the carbon is in solid solution, which produces a solid-solution hardening
effect.

12.32 / 10.32 0.60 wt% C, fine pearlite, 0.60 wt% C, coarse pearlite, 0.25 wt% C, coarse pearlite, 0.25 wt% C,
spheroidite

12.33 / 10.33 The hardness of tempered martensite depends on the ferrite-cementite phase boundary area;
since these phase boundaries are barriers to dislocation motion, the greater the area the harder
the alloy. The microstructure of tempered martensite consists of small sphere-like particles of
cementite embedded within a ferrite matrix. As the size of the cementite particles increases,
the phase boundary area diminishes, and the alloy becomes softer. Therefore, with increasing
tempering time, the cementite particles grow, the phase boundary area decreases, and the
hardness diminishes. As the tempering temperature is increased, the rate of cementite particle
growth also increases, and the alloy softens, again, because of the decrease in phase boundary
area.
12.34 / 10.34 (a) Austenitize at a temperature of about 760 ◦ C, quench to room temperature at a rate greater
than about 140 ◦ C/s, then isothermally heat at a temperature between 250 and 650 ◦ C.
(b) Austenitize at a temperature of about 760 ◦ C, then cool to room temperature at a rate less
than about 35 ◦ C/s.
(c) First austenitize at a temperature of about 760 ◦ C, then quench to room temperature at a
rate greater than about 140 ◦ C/s.
(d) First austenitize at a temperature of about 760 ◦ C, then cool to room temperature at a rate
less than about 35 ◦ C/s.
(e) First austenitize at a temperature of about 760 ◦ C, then rapidly quench to room temperature
at a rate greater than about 140 ◦ C/s, then isothermally heat treat (temper) at a temperature
between 250 and 650 ◦ C.
(f) First austenitize at a temperature of about 760 ◦ C, then cool to room temperature at a rate
less than about 35 ◦ C/s.
(g) First austenitize at a temperature of about 760 ◦ C, then rapidly quench to room temperature
at a rate greater than about 140 ◦ C/s, then isothermally heat treat (temper) at a temperature
between 250 and 650 ◦ C.
(h) Simply heat at about 700 ◦ C for approximately 20 h.

12.35 / 10.35 (a) Both tempered martensite and spheroidite have sphere-like cementite particles within a
ferrite matrix; however, these particles are much larger for spheroidite.
(b) Tempered martensite is harder and stronger inasmuch as there is much more ferrite-
cementite phase boundary area for the smaller particles; thus, there is greater reinforcement
of the ferrite phase, and more phase boundary barriers to dislocation motion.
Answers extra questions 7
Only brief answers are given without explanation.

1 (a) Martensite.
(b) Solution heat treatment (annealing above 727 ◦ C), followed by quenching.
(c) Soft and tough: spheroidite, obtained by annealing for a long time at a temperature of 700
◦ C (“spheroidizing”).

(d) Spring steel: strong and tough. E.g. tempered martensite (yield strength 1250 MPa, failure-
strain 10%).
2 (a) Solid solution heat treatment (austenizing), followed by full anneal treatment (the oven is
switched off and the sample is allowed to cool slowly in the oven).
(b) Nothing changes.
(c) From low to high strength: spheroidite, coarse pearlite, fine pearlite, bainite, martensite.
(d) The BCT lattice has only few slip systems and the lattice is supersaturated with carbon
(barriers for dislocation motion). The toughness can be increased by tempering the martensite.
3 (a) Normalizing.
(b) Pure iron: polycrystal of one phase, ferrite.
Fe with 0.22 wt% C:

Fe with 0.76 wt% C:

(c) The tensile strength increases with carbon content because the carbon content determines
the amount of lamellar cementite (hard phase) in the material.
(d) Austenization: transformation to one homogeneous phase, austenite. Rapid cooling: (ii) and
(iii): martensite, (i): fine grained ferrite.
(e) Yes, ferrite is soft (low yield strength) and for martensite, the hardness (yield strength) is
coupled to the carbon content. Material (iii) is the strongest.
(f) 600 ◦ C: transformation to fine pearlite. At 500 ◦ C, very fine cementite in ferrite is formed:
bainite.
(g) Large undercooling, so a large difference in Gibbs free energy. Therefore, there is a small
critical nucleus size and a large nucleation rate. On the other hand, there is a low growth rate
because of slow diffusion. Therefore, many small crystals are formed.
4 (a) The (time-dependent) process of the eutectoid reaction at a constant temperature.
(b) At a high temperature, the transformation occurs slowly because there is only a small
amount of undercooling. The thermodynamic driving force for the transformation is there-
fore small, resulting in a large critical nucleus size. This means that the nucleation rate is low:
 the transformation is nucleation limited. At a low temperature, the rate of diffusion is low,
so that the nucleus growth rate will be low. Therefore, the transformation occurs slowly: it is
diffusion limited.
(c) 650 ◦ C: high temperature, little nucleation, much growth, so a coarse structure (coarse pe-
arlite).
575 ◦ C: lower temperature; relatively more nuclei and less fast growth, so a finer structure
(fine pearlite).
Properties: the fine-grained structure that is obtained at 575 ◦ C will have a higher strength
and a lower toughness than the coarse-grained structure.
(d) Strain hardening or heat treatments to obtain a finer structure. Examples: bainite forma-
tion (solution heat treatment in the austenite regime, followed by isothermal transformation
between 300 and 540 ◦ C), martensite formation (solution heat treatment in the austenite re-
gime, followed by quenching), tempering (temper heat treatment after martensite formation,
leading to an increase of toughness in combination with still a relatively high strength).

5 (a) Transformation to a homogeneous α-structure (solid solution heat treatment). Subsequent

quenching: the structure is “frozen in”, a supersaturated solution is formed.
(b) A very fine and distributed coherent intermediate phase (precipitates) is formed. Initially,
the hardness (strength) of the material will increase as a function of the annealing time (more
zones, larger zones). For longer annealing times, the hardness will decrease because the zones
can no longer stay coherent; the precipitates become dispersions and therefore the dislocation
motion is less impeded.
(c) For example, 250 ◦ C.

6 (a) Precipitation hardening (by “aging”). When rapidly cooled, the microstructure of 550 ◦ C,
consisting of a solid solution of Cu in Al, is frozen in. Therefore, a supersaturated solid solution
is obtained at room temperature. In the course of time, coherent precipitates are formed and
they impede dislocation motion.
(b) After a much longer time, the precipitates will become larger and do not stay coherent
(“overaging”). These precipitates are less effective and the yield stress decreases.