1. Parts of grammar, the relations they are built on.

Main units of Grammar are a word and a sentence. A word may be divided into morphemes, a
sentence may be divided into phrases (word-groups). A morpheme, a word, a phrase and a
sentence are units of different levels of language structure. A unit of a higher level consists of one
or more units of a lower level.
Grammatical units enter into two types of relations: in the language system (paradigmatic
relations) and in speech (syntagmatic relations).
In the language system each unit is included into a set of connections based on different
properties. For example, word forms child, children, child's, children's have the same lexical
meaning and have different grammatical meanings. They constitute a lexeme.
Word-forms children, boys, men, books... have the same grammatical meaning and have
different lexical meanings. They constitute a grammeme (a categorial form, a form class).
The system of all grammemes (grammatical forms) of all lexemes (words) of a given class
constitutes a paradigm.
Syntagmatic relations are the relations in an utterance: I like children.
2. Main grammatical units.
A word and a sentence, are studied by different sections of Grammar: Morphology (Accidence)
and Syntax. Morphology studies the structure, forms and the classification of words. Syntax
studies the structure, forms and the classification of sentences. In other words, Morphology
studies paradigmatic relations of words, Syntax studies syntagmatic relations of words and
paradigmatic relations of sentences.
There is also a new approach to the division of Grammar into Morphology and Syntax.
According to this approach Morphology should study both paradigmatic and syntagmatic
relations of words. Syntax should study both paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of sentences.
Syntactic syntagmatics is a relatively new field of study, reflecting the functional approach to
language, i.e. the description of connected speech, or discourse.
3. Language and speech: relations between them.
Language is the system, phonological, lexical, and grammatical, which lies at the base of all
speaking. It is the source which every speaker and writer has to draw upon if he is to be
understood by other speakers of the language.
Speech on the other hand, is the manifestation of language, or its use by various speakers and
writers of the given language. Thus what we have before us, in oral or in written form, as material
for analysis, is always a product of speech, namely something either-pronounced or written by
some individual speaker or writer or, occasionally, a group of speakers or writers. There is no
other way.
 4. What is grammatical meaning? Form? Category?
The general notions of grammar which determine the structure of language and find their
expression in inflection and other devices are generally called grammatical categories. As is
known, a grammatical category is generally represented by at least two grammatical forms,
otherwise it cannot exist. A simple case of oppositions in pairs of grammatical forms will be
found, for instance, between the Singular and the Plural in nouns, or between Active and Passive
in verbs.
A grammatical category is a unit of grammar based on a morphological opposition of
grammatical meanings presented in grammatical forms. It is more or less universally recognized
that word-meaning is not homogeneous but is made up of various components the combination
and the interrelation of which determine to a great extent the inner facet of the word. These
components are usually described as types of meaning. The two main types of meaning that are
readily observed are the grammatical and the lexical meanings to be found in words and word-
forms. The most general meanings rendered by language and expressed by systemic correlations
of word-forms are interpreted in linguistics as grammatical meanings.
Grammatical meanings are very abstract, very general. Therefore the grammatical form is not
confined to an individual word, but unites a whole class of words, so that each word of the class
expresses the corresponding grammatical meaning together with its individual, concrete
semantics. Grammatical meanings ranged in oppositions and presented in grammatical forms
build grammatical categories.
Grammatical forms can be morphemes, synthetic forms, and grammatical word combinations,
which are analytical forms. Synthetic forms unite both lexical and grammatical meanings in one
word. In analytical forms there two or more words in which at least one element is an auxiliary.
The auxiliary is a constant element of an analytical structure, which is devoid of lexical meaning
(it renders grammatical meanings and is a purely grammatical element). Analytical structures
must be differentiated from free syntactical word combinations. In free syntactical word
combinations all the elements possess both lexical and grammatical meanings.
5. Types of form-building in English.
The grammatical meaning finds its expression in a grammatical form which is a means of
expressing a grammatical meaning. There are several types of form-building in English. The main
subdivision of form-building types is into synthetic and analytical.
In a synthetic type a grammatical meaning is expressed within a word, in an analytical type a
grammatical meaning is expressed with the help of auxiliary words (plus suffixes). The synthetic
types of form-building in English include affixation :suffixes –s,-ed, -ing, -er, -est, -en, -ren, -ne,
-m (reads, shown, books, oxen, taken, mine ,them etc.),
sound interchange/ morpho-phonemic alteration – a meaningful change of vowels or consonants
within a morpheme (take - took, shine - shone) and suppletivity – the extreme case of alteration,
there happens a complete change of the root (go - went, be -was, good - better – best, I-me, we-
us, she-her) .
The analytical type of form-building occupies a very important place in the grammatical
structure of English as the language has evolutionized from being mainly synthetical to becoming
more and more analytical, and analytical tendencies in the present day English are very strong.
 6. What are the synthetic means of form-building.
Synthetical grammatical forms are based on inner inflexion, outer inflexion, and suppletivity.
Synthetical means of form-building are Inflexions (form-building morphemes) Sound
alterations/interchange – inner inflexions (goose-geese) (Sound interchange may be of two types;
vowel and consonant-interchange. It is often accompanied by affixation: bring — brought.
Suppletivity (good-better-the best) (Forms of one word are be derived from different roots).
7. Why are analytical forms of words considered contradictory?
Analytical forms are combinations of the auxiliary element (a word -morpheme) and the notional
element; is writing.
Analytical forms are contradictory units: phrases in form and wordforms in function.
In the analytical form is writing the auxiliary verb be is lexically empty. It expresses the
grammatical meaning. The notional element expresses both the lexical and the grammatical
meaning. So the grammatical meaning is expressed by the two components of the analytical form:
the auxiliary verb be and the affix -ing.. The word-morpheme be and the inflexion -ing constitute
a discontinuous morpheme.
Analytical forms are correlated with synthetic forms. There must be at least one synthetic form in
the paradigm.
Analytical forms have developed from free phrases and there are structures which take an
intermediary position between free phrases and analytical forms: will go, more beautiful.
The abundant use of analytical forms, especially in the system of the verb, is the characteristic
feature of Modern English.
8. What is a morpheme? Types of morphemes. What is an allomorph?
As the biggest units of morphology, words are made up of smaller units – morphemes. A
morpheme is the smallest, indivisible meaningful language unit within the structure of a word.
According to their meaning & the role they play in constructing words, morphemes are:

 Root morphemes (roots);

 Affixational morphemes (affixes).

The root morpheme is a lexical nuclears, the semantic centre of the word, it has a concrete lexical meaning & is a
common part of a word-building cluster.
The word-building cluster is a group of words with one & the same root morpheme, linked through synchronic
derivational relations.
Allomorph is a variant form of a morpheme. It can be simply described as a unit of meaning that varies in
sound without changing its meaning. Allomorph is an alternative pronunciation of a morpheme in a particular
context.
For instance, the plural morpheme in English, generally written as {s} has 3 allomorphs.
/s/ as in cats
/z/ as in dogs
 /ɪz/ as in boxes
The past form morphemes also have three allomorphs.
/d/ as in slammed
/t/as in slipped
/ɪd/ as in stilted

 The main difference between morpheme and allomorph is that morpheme is concerned with

the meaning and structure of a word whereas allomorph is concerned with the sound.
 9. The notion of a discontinuous morpheme.
The discontinuous morpheme is a grammatical unit built up of an interrupted string of
phonemes. It is seen in the analytical grammatical form comprising an auxiliary word and a
grammatical suffix.
Example:
be ... ing — for the continuous verb forms (e.g. is going);
have ... en — for the perfect verb forms (e.g. has gone);
be ... en — for the passive verb forms (e.g. is taken)

10.The method of opposition in grammar. Types of oppositions.

The opposition may be defined as a generalized correlation of lingual forms by means of which a
certain function is expressed. The correlated elements (members) of the opposition must possess
two types of features: common features and differential features.
Common features serve as the basis of contrast, while differential features immediately express
the function in question. The oppositional theory was originally formulated as a phonological
theory.
Three main qualitative types of oppositions were established in phonology: privative, gradual,
and equipollent.
By the number of members contrasted, oppositions were divided into binary and more than binary
(ternary, quaternary, etc.).
11.What are the criteria of classifying words into parts of speech?
Parts of speech are grammatical classes of words distinguished on the basis of three criteria:
semantic, morphological and syntactic, i.e. meaning, form and function.
MEANING (Semantic Properties)
Each part of speech is characterized by the general meaning which is an abstraction from the
lexical meanings of constituent words. (The general meaning of nouns is substance, the general
meaning of verbs is process, etc.) This general meaning is understood as the categorial meaning
of a class of words, or the part-of-speech meaning.
Semantic properties of a part of speech find their expression in the grammatical properties. To
sleep, a sleep, sleepy, asleep refer to the same phenomenon of objective reality, but they belong
to different parts of speech, as their grammatical properties are different.
So meaning is a supportive criterion which helps to check the purely grammatical criteria, those
of form and function.
FORM (Morphological Properties)
The formal criterion concerns the inflexional and derivational features of words belonging to a
given class, i.e. the grammatical categories (the paradigms) and derivational (stem-building,
lexico-grammatical) morphemes.
This criterion is not always reliable as many words are invariable and many words contain no
derivational affixes. Besides, the same derivational affixes may be used to build different parts of
speech:
-ly can end an adjective, an adverb, a noun: a daily;
-tion can end a noun and a verb: to position,
Most English grammarians stick to the classification of parts of speech into notional and
structural but they use other terms while classifying them (notional parts of speech - lexical
words; structural - function words).
 12. What is the difference between notional and functional parts of
speech?
Notional parts of speech: the noun, the adjective, the numeral, the pronoun, the verb
and the adverb. The notional parts of speech perform a certain function in the
sentence: subject, object, predicate, attribute, adverbial modifier…
Structural ones either express relations between words or sentences or emphasize
the meaning of words or sentences. They never perform any independent function in
the sentence. They are: the article, the preposition, the conjunction, the particle, the
modal word, the interjection.

13. What classes of words are called open and closed and why?
Notional parts of speech are open classes — new items can be added to them, they
are indefinitely extendable. Functional parts of speech are closed systems, including a
limited number of members. As a rule, they cannot be extended by creating new
items.

14. Subclasses of nouns.

Nouns denote things and other entities presented as substances: beauty, progress, etc.
Nouns fall into several subclasses which differ as to their semantic and grammatical
properties: common (I really want a new pair of jeans) — proper (I really want to
buy a new pair of Levis), concrete (mother, table, letter) — abstract (Love, hate,
disapproval), countable (book, dog) — uncountable (water, information), animate
(dog, cat, bird) — inanimate(table, book), personal — non-personal.

15. What are the theories of the category of case?

Case is a morphological category which has a distinct syntactic significance, as
it denotes relations of nouns towards other words in the sentence.
there are only two cases (common and genitive). But the two-case theory is also open
to criticism:
- 's is not a typical case inflexion. It is used both in the singular and in
the,plural: man's — men's. It can be added to adverbs: today's lecture, and to phrases:
Mary and John's father. Prof. G.N.Vorontsova does not recognize case as a
morphological category and treats -'s as a postposition, a sign of syntactic
dependence, a syntactic form-word resembling a preposition.
 16. The types of the Genitive case.
The dependent genitive
In this case a noun in the genitive case generally precedes another noun which is its head-
word. The dependent genitive may be of two kinds:
1) the specifying genitive.- It may be replaced by the of-phrase.
2) The classifying (descriptive) genitive - The noun in the genitive case here completely
loses its meaning of possession and comes to denote a quality and refers to a whole class of
similar objects: a girls’ school (= a school for girls).
3) The group genitive - This type is considered to be a specific feature of the English
genitive case ― ’s may be added not only to a single noun, but to a whole group of words:
a) to a group of co-ordinate nouns: Jack and Ann’s house
c) to a noun + possessive pronoun: somebody else’s umbrella;
d) to a group ending in a numeral: an hour or two’s walk.
The independent (absolute) genitive
A noun in the genitive may be used without a head-word. It is used:
a) to avoid repetition: “Whose hat is that?” — “Virgina’s”;
d) Firms and institutions, hospitals, churches and cathedrals often have names, ending in -s
genitive. The names of firms are often written without an apostrophe: Harrods, Selfridges,
Bank of Berkley’s (or Barkleys), McDonald's (or McDonalds).
There is also the double genitive. It is used when a noun is modified by two successive
nouns one of which is in the genitive case and the other with the “of”- phrase: a friend of
my father’s.

17. The meanings of the Genitive case.

Genetive case has a wide variety of meanings:
1. Possessive genitive, e.g.: Mrs. Johnson’s passport —* Mrs- Johnson has a passport (R.
Quirk etal.).
2. Subjective genitive, indicating the doer of the action, e.g.: the people's choice —» The
people chose (S. Greenbaum).
3. Genitive of source, denoting such relationships as authorship and origin. Cf.: the
general's letter —> The general wrote a letter (R. Quirk et al.).
Australia's exports —» the exports that come from Australia (S. Greenbaum).
4. Objective genitive, indicating the object of the action, e.g.: Kennedy's assassination —
> Somebody assassinated Kennedy (S. Greenbaum).
5. Temporal genitive, denoting a period of time, e.g.: ten days' absence —> The absence
lasted ten days (R. Quirk et al.).
6. Equational genitive, establishing the identity of the referent, e.g.:ba mile's distance ~+
The distance is a mile (L.S. Barkhudarov).
7. Genitive of destination, e.g.: a women s college —»• a college for women (R. Quirk et
al.).
 18. The theory of analytical cases and its criticism
This theory was worked out by two scholars: M. Deutschbein and J. Meshchaninov.
According to this theory different prepositions express different cases. “to the student” –
analytical Dative, “of the student” – analytical Genitive, “by the student” – analytical
Instrumental. But this theory is opposed by much bigger number of scholars who have their
reasons why it is not grounded: 1. Prepositions in these phrases can’t be regarded as
grammatical word morphemes because they keep some definite meaning. (Ex. We speak of
the student; The speech of the student; What became of the student?
2. Any grammatical category is known to be represented by oppositions, comprising a
definite number of members. But combination with different prepositions are too numerous
to be interpreted as opposemes representing the category of case (Ex. to dispose of – ; to
complain of ; to be informed of)

19. The theory denying the category of case in English. 

The theory was advanced by Prof. Воронцова and is shared by Мухин, Ильиш, Маслова.
Acc to this view the Eng noun has lost the category of case in the historic development. All
cases, including genitive, are considered extinct. The following arguments are given to
substantiate this theory: 1. the use of the s-sign is optional because it can be replaced by an
of-phrase. 2. it is used with a limited group of nouns (animate nouns and some other nouns,
denoting distance, time and money). 3. it occurs with very few plurals, only with such
plurals as men (men's). As to the other it is impossible to distinguish the sg genitive from
the pl genitive by ear. 4. The s-signs is only loosely connected with the noun. It can be
used not only with sg nouns but also with whole phrases, e.g.: John and Tom's room. The
Chancellor of the Exchequer's speech. The man I saw yesterday's son.

20. The theory of semantic cases by Ch. Fillmore. 

Fillmore suggests that the verb establishes a set of cases in a sentence: these are like slots,
which usually need not all be filled. For example, consider these sentences: 1. Mary
opened the door with a key. 2. Mary opened the door. 3. A key opened the door. 4. The
door opened. In (1) the semantic cases are: Mary - agent; the door - object; a key -
instrument. In (2) they are as in (1), except that there is no instrument. In (3) the cases are:
a key - instrument; the door - object. In (4) the only case is the door - object. In other
words, to open requires at the minimum that the object be specified in a sentence. Note that
the semantic object may appear as the syntactic subject.

21. The difference between grammatical and semantic cases. 

Grammar Case is a system of linguistic analysis, focusing on the link between the valence,
or number of subjects, objects, etc., of a verb and the grammatical context it requires. 
At that time, Semantic cases are conceptual entities which are universal, since they are
obligatorily verbalized by human languages but their lingual representation is idioethnic.
Semantic cases are relational notions, they reflect objective relations between things and
phenomena of reality in all their variety.
 22. What is the status of article in English: a part of speech or a word-
morpheme? If it is a word morpheme which category does it represent?
On the one hand, articles in English are viewed as a part of speech which include the so
called adjectival pronouns with a weakened meaning of their own. [8] With the noun they
specify, articles form a word-combination.
On the other hand, articles are regarded as auxiliary components within grammatical forms
of the noun. 
According to prof. A.I. Smirnitsky, the lexical meaning of the definite article is
individualisation, the lexical meaning of the indefinite article is classification, and, finally,
the meaning of the zero article, or its meaningful absence is abstraction.
23. The role of article in structuring information in a sentence. Articles play
very important role in a sentence. it is combined with the noun and it may be called a
noun determiner. Its syntactical role consists in marking off a noun or a noun phrase
as a part of a sentence. The article is placed before the noun it refers to and before all
the words in a noun phrase. E.g. It’s a book. It is a very interesting modern English
book.
24. What is the general meaning of the category of degrees of comparison?
The meaning of the category of comparison is expression of different degrees of intensity
of some property revealed by comparing referents similar in certain aspects. 

25.The problem of the number of degree of comparison in English.

Some Linguists approach the number of degrees of somparison as problematic on the
grounds that the basic form of the adj. does not express any comparison by itself and
therefore should be excluded from the category. This exclusion would reduce the category
to two members only, i. e. the comparative and superlative degrees.The non-expression of
superiority by the basic form is understood in the oppositional presentation of comparison
as a pre-requisite for the expression of the category. In this expression of the category the
basic form is the unmarked member, not distinguished by any comparison suffix or
comparison auxiliary, while superiority forms are the marked members.
26.Substaitivisation of English adjectives. Type of Substaitivisation adjectives.

Substantivised adj. may fall into several groups, according to their meaning and the
nominal features they possess.
1. Some s.a. have only the singular form. They may have either the singular or plural
agreement, depending on theior meaning.
2. Some s. a. have the category of number, that is they can have two forms – the sg. and the
pl. (nobles – a noble)
3. Some s.a. have only the plural form (finals).
27.What is the general meaning of the category of Aspect. Throw what forms is this
category revealed.

English verbs have special forms for expressing actions in progress, going on at a definite
moment or period of time, i'.ei for expressing limited duration, — continuous forms.
When I came in he was writing.
Continuous forms have been traditionally treated as tense-forms (definite, expanded,
progressive) or as tense-aspect forms. Consider the opposition:
comes — is coming
Members of the opposition are not opposed as tenses (tense is the same). They show different
character of an action, the manner or way in which the action is experienced or regarded: as a
mere fact or as taken in progress. The opposition common - continuous reveals the category of
aspect
Tense and aspect are closely connected, but they are different categories, revealed through
different oppositions: comes — came; comes — is coming.
The fact that the Infinitive has the category of aspect (to come — to be coming) and has no
category of tense also shows that these are different categories.

28.How is the meaning of the category of aspect connected with the lexical meaning of the
verb.

The category of aspect is closely connected with the lexical meaning. R.QuirR divides the verbs
into dynamic (having the category of aspect) and stative (disallowing the continuous form).
Stative verbs denote perception, cognition and certain relations: see, know, like, belong. Dynamic
verbs may be terminative (Limitive), denoting actions of limited duration: close, break, come, and
durative (unlimitive) , denoting actions of unlimited duration: walk, read, write, shine. With
durative verbs the aspect opposition may be neutralized.
When I came in he sat in the corner. When I came, in he was sitting in the corner.

29. What is the correlation between English and Russian aspect form
Both foreign and Russian linguists who studied the category of aspect in English stressed that it is
closely connected with the category of tense. The definitions of the category of aspect given in
different sources point out various features of this verb form, cf. it serves to show the relation of
the action to the passage of time, especially in reference to completion, duration, or repetition. As
a grammatical category it is found both in English and in Russian, yet opinions differ concerning
the type of their correlation. Some scholars believe that the category of aspect in Russian can’t be
compared with any category in non-Slavonic languages and it has no precise grammatical
equivalent in other languages. The comparison of the aspect forms in the two languages is
understood differently by different scholars. According to B.A. Ilish the correlation of related
forms can be described as follows:1) the English common aspect correlates with Russian
Perfective, bit it has a narrower range of meanings and uses, 2) the English continuous aspect
correlates with Russian Imperfective, though it is broader in its functions and uses. J. Catford
shows the correlation of English and Russian tense-aspect forms in a more detailed way in which
the marked members are given in the boxes

30. What is the general meaning of the category of Tense.How many tenses are there in
English.Which are problematic and why.

We should distinguish between time as a universal non-linguistic concept and linguistic means
of its expression (grammatical and lexical).
The time of events is usually correlated with the moment of speaking. The three main divisions
of time are present (including the moment of speaking), past (preceding it), and future (following
it).
Events may be also correlated with other events, moments, situations (for example, in the past
or in the future). They may precede or follow other events or happen at the same time with other
events.
Accordingly time may be denoted absolutely (with regard to the moment of speaking) and
relatively '(.with regard to a certain moment).
The two main approaches to the category of Tense in Modern : English are:
1) there are three tenses: present, past, future;
2) there are two tenses: present and past (O.Jespersen, L.S.Barkhudarov).
According to the second view shall, will + infinitive cannot be treated as analytical forms, as
preserve their modal meaning
However the recognition of the analytical forms of the future does not mean the recognition of
the three-tense system, because in Modem English there are two correlated forms denoting future
actions: future and future-in-| thejmst. Future-in-the-past correlates an action not with the
moment* of speaking, but with a moment in the past, so it cannot be included into the system of
tenses. Moreover, if it is treated as a tense-form, there will be two tenses, in one form (future and
past), which is impossible. On the other hand, future and non-future forms constitute an
opposition: comes — will come, came — would come
This opposition reveals a special category, the category of posteriority (prospect). Will come,
denotes absolute posteriority, would come — relative posteriority.

31. Relatively and absolutely presentation of time.

The time of events is usually correlated with the moment of speaking. The three main divisions of
time are present (including the moment of speaking), past (preceding it), and future (following it).
Events may be also correlated with other events, moments, situations (for example, in the past or
in the future). They may precede or follow other events or happen at the same time with other
events.
Accordingly time may be denoted absolutely (with regard to the moment of speaking) and
relatively '(.with regard to a certain moment).
(not necessary)The absolutive time denotation, in compliance with the experience gained by man
in the course of his cognitive activity, distributes the intellective perception of time among three
spheres: the sphere of the present, with the present moment included within its framework; the
sphere of the past, which precedes the sphere of the present by way of retrospect; the sphere of
the future, which follows the sphere of the present by way of prospect.
The relative expression of time correlates two or more events showing some of them either as
preceding the others, or following the others, or happening at one and the same time with them.

32.The category of posteriority, its meaning and forms.

The two main approaches to the category of Tense in Modern : English are:
1) there are three tenses: present, past, future;
2) there are two tenses: present and past (O.Jespersen, L.S.Barkhudarov).
According to the second view shall, will + infinitive cannot be treated as analytical forms, as
preserve their modal meaning.
However the recognition of the analytical forms of the future does not mean the recognition of the
three-tense system, because in Modem English there are two correlated forms denoting future
actions: future and future-in-the past. Future-in-the-past correlates an action not with the
moment* of speaking, but with a moment in the past, so it cannot be included into the system of
tenses. Moreover, if it is treated as a tense-form, there will be two tenses, in one form (future and
past), which is impossible. On the other hand, future and non-future forms constitute an
opposition: comes — will come, came — would come
This opposition reveals a special category, the category of posteriority (prospect). Will come,
denotes absolute posteriority, would come — relative posteriority.

33. What is the position of the perfect forms among verbal form in English. which
categories do they represent.
In Modem English there are also special forms for expressing relative priority — perfect forms.
Perfect forms express both the time (actions preceding a certain moment) and the way the action
is shown to proceed (the connection of the action with the indicated moment in its results or
consequences). So the meaning of the perfect forms is constituted by two semantic components:,
temporal (priority) and aspeetive (result, current relevance). That is why perfect forms have been
treated as tense-forms or aspect-forms.
Consider the oppositions: comes — has come,is coming — has been coming. ,
Members of these oppositions are not opposed either as tenses or as aspects (members of each
opposition express the same tense and aspect).
The meaning of perfect forms may be influenced by the lexical meaning of the verb
(limitive/unlimitive), tense-form, context and other factors.

34. What is the general meaning of the category of Voice. What is the number of voice in
English? Name them.
Voice is the grammatical category of the verb which expresses an action from the subject. there
are two grammatical voices: the active voice and the passive voice.
Voice shows the relation of the action towards its subject and object (doer and recipient, agent
and receiver). Active voice denotes an action issuing from its subject. Passive voice denotes an
action directed towards its object:
He loves. -He is loved.
In other words, voice denotes the direction of. an action as viewed by the speaker.
Voice is a morphological category but it has a distinct syntactic significance. Active voice has
obligatory connections with the doer of the action. Passive voice has obligatory connections with
the object of the action.
In the active construction the semantic ana the grammatical subject coincide. In the passive
construction the grammatical subject is the object of the action.

35.Which voices are considered problematic. The problems of the category of

voice:
The number of voices in English The nature of “to be + Part II” The nature of
“get/become + Part II” structure
 36.The problem of reflexive voice. 33. The problem of Reciprocal voice.34.
The problem of Middle voice.
The main difficulty in defining the number of voices in modem English is the
absence of direct correspondence between meaning and form. Three more voices
have been suggested in addition to active and passive:
(1) Reflexive: He hurt himself.
(2) Reciprocal: They greeted each other.
(3) Middle: The door opened.
It is obvious that reflexive and reciprocal meanings are expressed by corresponding
pronouns which perform the function of the direct object.
In sentence (3) the verb is intransitive and it has no category of voice. Consider also:
The water boils. The book sells well. The figures will not add.

37. The problem of reciprocal voice. We will consider formations like greeted each
other, or loved each other, or praised one another. The problem is somewhat similar
to that of the reflexive v., and it is this: Does the group each other (and the group one
another) make part of an analytical verb form, that is, is it an auxiliary element used
for forming a special v. of the verb, the reciprocal v., or is it always a separate
secondary part of the sentence (though it is hard to tell exactly what part of the
sentence it may be)? We might seek a solution to the question on the same lines as
with the reflexive v., that is, we might try to find out whether the group each other (or
one another) is ever found to be co-ordinated with a noun or pronoun serving as
object to the verb. We should have to see whether such a sentence is ever found as
this one: They kissed each other and the child, etc. Such a search would be very hard
and not promising at all. We would not find a single example of that kind, but this
could not be considered as a proof that each other (or one another) does serve as an
auxiliary to form the reciprocal v. of the verb (kiss in this example).

38. The problem of middle voice. As in the case of the reflexive v., we must also
mention the instances, which are rather few, when a verb denotes a reciprocal action
without the help of the group each other or one another. For instance, in the sentence
They kissed and parted, kissed is of course equivalent to kissed each other. Since
there is no external sign of reciprocity, we cannot find here a reciprocal voice even if
we should admit its existence in the language. These cases will also best be
considered under the heading "middle v."

39.Possible interpretation of be+participle II.

The combination be+participle II may denote a state as a result of the previous action.
Compare:
(1) The cup was broken. (2) The. silence, was broken by a knock.
was broken in sentence (1) is treated as: a) passive voice (L.S.Barkhudarov),
 b) compound nominal predicate (A.I.Smirm'tsky).
As shown by A.I.Smirm'tsky, passive constructions have corresponding active constructions:
Tables are usually made of wood. — People usually make tables of -wood.
But the sentence The table is made of wood has no parallel active construction. The combination
be+participle II, denoting state, is a compound nominal predicate. Likewise the combination get
(become) + participle II is a compound nominal predicate an not the form of the passive voice:
got married, became influenced.

40.What are the types of possessive construction. Give example.

Passive constructions in English are used more frequently than in Russian. Firstly, in Russian
relations denoted by passive voice may be expressed by cases:
The delegation was met at the station. Делегацию встретили ...
Secondly, in English not only transitive but also intransitive objective verbs have the category
of voice.
Here belong: 1) Ditransitive verbs with 2 direct objects:
He asked me a question.—>
(1) I was asked a question.
(2) A question was asked.
2) Ditransitive verbs with the direct and the indirect object:
He sent me a letter.-
(1) I was sent a letter.
(2) A letter was sent me (to me).
In sentence (1) the indirect object becomes the subject of the passive construction and
the direct object is retained in the passive construction.
3) Verbs taking a prepositional object:
He. was sent for.
4) Phraseological units of the type to take, care of, to set fire to, to lose sight of: ,
The house was set fire to.
5) Some intransitive subjective verbs followed by prepositional phrases: The house was not
lived in

41. What is the general meaning of the category of Mood. What is the number of mood in
English. Name them?
The category of mood expresses the relations between the action and reality from the speaker’s
point of view. He can treat it as real, unreal, probable or as a kind of inducement. Hence, we
traditionally differentiate 3 principal types of mood in English: the indicative, the imperative and
the oblique moods. 
the indicative mood presents an action or event as a real fact from the grammatical point of
view. (present, past or future.)
The imperative mood expresses an inducement, addressed by the speaker to the addressee.

42. Which Moods are considered problematic. Why? Both Subjunctive I and the Suppositional
Mood express problematic actions, not necessarily contradicting reality. These actions are
presented as necessity, order, suggestion, supposition, desire, request, etc. Expressing the same
kind of modality, Subjunctive I and the Suppositional Mood are used in the same syntactic
structures and are, to a great extent, interchangeable. However, they differ stylistically: thus, in
the British variant of the English language Subjunctive I is only preserved in elevated prose,
poetry or official documents. In neutral, everyday speech the Suppositional Mood is used. In
American English Subjunctive I in neutral and colloquial speech is the norm: He even suggested
that I should play cricket with his sons (Br.E.). He suggested that I come for her (Am.E.).
43.Homonymy and moods.
There is a connection Homonymy with moods.
They were ... — real, past If they were ... — unreal, non-past
According to this approach, subjunctive is represented by 4 sets of forms (see above).
In this system of 4 sets of forms, denoting different degree of unreality, there is no direct
correspondence of meaning and form:
a) one meaning — different forms:
1) I suggest you do (should do) it.
b) one form — different meanings:.
1) I suggest you should do it.
2) In your place I should do it.
44. What is the general meaning of the category of Oder.
In Modem English there are also special forms for expressing relative priority — perfect forms.
Perfect forms express both the time (actions preceding a certain moment) and the way the action
is shown to proceed (the connection of the action with the indicated moment in its results or
consequences). So the meaning of the perfect forms is constituted by two semantic components:,
temporal (priority) and aspeetive (result, current relevance). That is why perfect forms have been
treated as tense-forms or aspect-forms.
Consider the oppositions: comes — has come,
is coming — has been coming. ,
Members of these oppositions are not opposed either as tenses or as aspects (members of each
opposition express the same tense and aspect). These oppositions reveal the category of order
(correlation, retrospect, taxis).
Tense and order are closely connected, but they are different categories, revealed through
different oppositions: comes — come,
comes — has come.
The fact that verbals, have the category of order (to come — to have come, coming — having
come) and have no category of tense also shows the difference of these categories.
The meaning of perfect forms may be influenced by the lexical meaning of the verb
(limitive/unlimitive), tense-form, context and other factors.
So temporal relations in Modem English are expressed by three categories:
tense (present — past)
prospect (future — non-future)
order (perfect — non-perfect).
The central category, tense, is proper to finite forms only. Categories denoting time relatively,
eiribrace both fmites and verbals.
The character of an action is expressed by two categories: aspect (common — continuous) and
order.
45. What are Verbals? Which characteristic do the possess?
Verbals include three non-finite forms of the verb: the infinitive, the
gerund and the participle.
The main characteristics of the verbals:1. Their syntactical functions differ from
those of the finite verb and are typical of parts of speech other than the verb.
2. They are widely used in the so-called predicative constructions, consisting of two
elements – nominal and verbal. The components are related to each other like the
subject and the predicate of the sentence. They make up a syntactical unit (or a
complex) treated as one part of the sentence.
3. Verbals have relative tense distinctions showing whether the action expressed by
the verb is simultaneous with, or prior to the action expressed by the finite verb. Thus
they have non-perfect and perfect forms.
4. They also express the category of voice represented by the opposition
of active and passive forms.
5. Like all other verbs, verbals take objects and are associated with adverbial
modifiers.

46. What category is revealed through the opposition of finite/ non-finite forms?
Through the opposition of finite and non-finite forms the category of representation
is revealed. Finites present marked and intensive member of the opposition. Non-
finite forms present unmarked and extensive member of the opposition.The category
of representation(A.I. Smirnitsky) is the opposition of finite and non-finite forms.
The category of representation is revealed through 3 categorial forms: Verbal
representation presented by predicative (personal) forms. Substantive representation
is characteristic to gerund and infinitive. Adjectival representation is characteristic to
participle. The leading form of the category of representation is verbal representation,
that is personal forms.

42,43. The main division inside the verb is that between the finite verbs (finites) and non-
finite verbs (verbals). Through the opposition of finite and non-finite forms the category of
finitude is revealed. Finites present marked and intensive member of the opposition. Non-finite
forms present unmarked and extensive member of the opposition.
Verbals possess some verbal and some non-verbal features. Lexically verbals do not differ from
finite forms. Grammatically non-finites may denote a secondary action or a process related to that
expressed by the finite verb.
The finites can be subdivided into 3 systems - moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive.Formal
morphological characteristics. Verbals possess the verb categories of voice, perfect, and aspect.
They lack the categories of person, number, mood, and tense. None of the forms have
morphological features of non-verbal parts of speech, neither nominal, adjectival or adverbial.
Combinability and functions. Non-verbal character of verbals reveals itself in their syntactical
functions. Thus, the infinitive and the gerund perform the main syntactical functions of the noun,
which are those of subject, object and predicative. Participle I functions as attribute, predicative
and adverbial modifier; participle II as attribute and predicative. They cannot form a predicate by
themselves, although unlike non-verbal parts of speech they can function as part of a compound
verbal predicate.
The infinitive has the verb categories of voice (to praise – to be praised), order (to keep – to have
kept) and aspect (to bring – to be bringing).
The gerund is a non-finite form of the verb with some noun features. Morphologically the verbal
character of the gerund is manifested in the categories of voice and order.
Participle is a non-finite form of the verb with some adjectival and adverbial features. The verbal
character of participle is manifested morphologically in the categories of voice and order.

44. Double nature of the infinitive. The Infinitive is the most generalized, the most abstract
form of the verb, serving as the verbal name of a process; it is used as the derivation base for all
the other verbal forms. That is why the infinitive is traditionally used as the head word for the
lexicographic entry of the verb in dictionaries.
The infinitive combines verbal features with features of the noun; it is a phenomenon of hybrid
processual-substantive nature, intermediary between the verb and the noun. It has voice and
aspect forms, e.g.: to write, to be writing, to have written, to be written, to have been written;. The
non-verbal properties of the infinitive are displayed in its syntactic functions and its
combinability. The infinitive performs all the functions characteristic of the noun

45. Participle I (present participle) is fully homonymous with the gerund: it is also an ‘ing-form’
(or, rather, four ‘ing-forms’, cf.: writing, being written, having written, having been written). But
its semantics is different: it denotes processual quality, combining verbal features with features of
the adjective and the adverb; participle I can be characterized as a phenomenon of hybrid
processual-qualifying nature, intermediary between the verb and the adjective/adverb
Participle II, like participle I, denotes processual quality and can be characterized as a
phenomenon of hybrid processual-qualifying nature. It has only one form, traditionally treated in
practical grammar as the verbal “third form”, used to build the analytical forms of the passive and
the perfect of finites, e.g.: is taken; has taken.

46. Participle II is a non-finite form of the verb with verbal and adjectival features. Participle II
stands apart from the other non-finites in that it does not possess their morphological categories.
Nevertheless, being a verb form, it possesses the potential verbal meaning of voice, aspect and
correlation, which depend upon the meaning of the verb it is formed from and which are realized
in the context.
The main meanings of participle II are those of a state as a result of some action or an action
itself. One of the most essential characteristics of participle II is that when it is used as part of the
sentence, participle II of a transitive verb is passive in meaning, participle II of an intransitive
verb is active.
Thus the participles invited, told, taken are semantically passive and correspond to the Russian
passive participles приглашенный, рассказанный, взятый. The participles arrived, gone, risen
are semantically active and correspond to the Russian active participles прибывший, ушедший,
поднявшийся (взошедший).

47. A phrase is a group (or pairing) of words in English. A phrase can be long or shor but it
does not include the subject-verb pairing necessary to make a clause.
Some examples of phrases include:
•after the meal (prepositional phrase)
•the nice neighbor (noun phrase)
•were waiting for the movie (verb phrase)
At present there are two approaches to the definition of a phrase. According to a narrower
definition a phrase is a unity of two or more notional words. According to a wider definition any
syntactic group of words can be treated as a phrase. Consequently, phrases may be built by
combining notional words (an old man), notional and functional words (in the corner); functional
words (out of). Notional phrases are more independent structurally and semantically, other types
function as part of notional phrases.
Like a word, a phrase is a naming unit. Phrases name different phenomena of the outside world: a
round table, yesterday morning, to speak fluently.
Like a word, a phrase may have a system of forms. Each component of a phrase may undergo
grammatical changes without destroying the identity of the phrase: a young man — younger men.
The naming function of the phrase distinguishes it from the sentence, whose main function is
communicative. Therefore the structure "N+V" is traditionally excluded from phrases.
However, another approach is possible. The structure "N+V" can be regarded at two levels of
syntactic analysis: the level of combinability (phrase level, pre-functional level) and the level of
function (sentence level). At the level of combinability the combination "N+V" can be treated
together with other types of phrases, as it is a syntactico-semantic unity of two notional words,
naming certain events or situations. At the level of function it differs essentially from other types
of phrases, as it constitutes the unit of communication, whereas other types of phrases are naming
units only, functioning as sentence constituents.
Thus a phrase is usually smaller than a sentence, but it may also function as a sentence (N+V),
and it may be larger than a sentence, as the latter may consist of one word.

48. Syntactic relations between words (components) of a word group

The main syntactic relations between components of a phrase are coordination, subordination,
interdependence and cummulation.
In coordination (сочинение )the constituents of a phrase are independent of each other and we
can change their places, e.g. Mary and John (John and Mary), boys and girls (girls and boys).
In subordination (подчинение) we have the head and the adjunct, and the adjunct is subordinated
to the head. Such syntactic relations are found in all headed phrases, e.g. beautiful girl, country
doctor.
Interdependence is relations between subject and predicate. The constituents are interdependent;
the subject depends on a predicate and visa versa, e.g. he smiles, I know.

49. A noun phrase contains a noun and other related words (usually modifiers and
determiners) which modify the noun. It works like a noun in a sentence.
A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other words (usually modifiers and
determiners) which come after or before the noun. The whole phrase functions as a noun in a
sentence. : He is wearing a nice blue shirt.
A prepositional phrase possesses a preposition, object of preposition (noun or pronoun) and may
also consist of other modifiers.
Examples: on a table, near a wall, in the room, at the office, under a tree.
A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or pronoun.
Whatever prepositional phrase ends with is called object of preposition. A prepositional phrase
works as an adjective or adverb in a sentence
An adjective phrase is a group of words that works like an adjective in a sentence. It consists of
adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a noun or pronoun.
An adjective phrase works like an adjective to modify (or tell about) a noun or a pronoun in a
sentence.
A group of words that functions as an adverb in a sentence is called adverbial phrase. It consists
of adverbs or other words (preposition, noun, verb, modifiers) that make a group work like an
adverb in a sentence.
An adverbial phrase works like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb
Verb Phrase
A combination of main verb and its auxiliaries (helping verbs) in a sentence is called verb phrase.
He is eating an apple.
An infinitive phrase consist of an infinitive(to + simple form of verb) and modifiers or other
words associated to the infinitive. An infinitive phrase always works as an adjective, adverb or a
noun in a sentence.
A gerund phrase consists of a gerund(verb + ing) and modifiers or other words associated with
the gerund. A gerund phrase works as a noun in a sentence.
A participle phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing), a past participle (verb ending in
-ed or other form in case of irregular verbs) and modifiers or other associate words. A participle
phrase is separated by commas. It always works as an adjective in a sentence.

50. A sentence is the largest and most complicated unit of language and at the same time it is
the smallest unit of speech, or the smallest utterance. In speech sentences are not given ready-
made, they are created by the speaker. But they are built according to patterns existing in the
language. So concrete sentences belong to speech. Patterns, according to which they are built,
belong to language.
A sentence has two basic meaningful functions: naming and communicative. Sentences name
situations and events of objective reality and convey information, expressing complete thoughts
or feelings. So the sentence is a structural, semantic and communicative unity. Accordingly the
three main aspects of the sentence are syntactic, semantic and logico -communicative. , sentence
function refers to a speaker's purpose in uttering a specific sentence, phrase, or clause. Whether a
listener is present or not is sometimes irrelevant. It answers the question: "Why has this been
said?" The four basic sentence functions in the world's languages include the declarative,
interrogative, exclamative, and the imperative. These correspond to a statement, question,
exclamation, and command respectively. Typically, a sentence goes from one function to the next
through a combination of changes in word order, intonation, the addition of certain auxiliaries or
particles, or other times by providing a special verbal form. The four main categories can be
further specified as being either communicative or informative.

51. As is well-known, sentences may be classified on the basis of two main principles:
communicative (declarative, iterrogative, imperative, exclamatory) and structural (simple amd
composite, one-member and two-member, complete and elliptical).
In the language system certain sentence-patterns arc correlated and are connected by oppositional
relations: statement/question (He knows it — Does
he know it?), non-negative/negative structures (Does he know il? — Doesn't he know it?), non-
emphatic/emphatic structures (Come! — DO come!).
Syntactic oppositions reveal syntactic categories (their number varies with different scholars).
Members of syntactic oppositions can be regarded as grammatical modifications, or valiants of
sentence patterns. Thus the syntactic structure of the sentence may be represented by a number of
forms, which constitute the paradigm of the sentence.

52. The sentence is a structural, semantic and communicative unity. Accordingly the three main
aspects of the sentence are syntactic, semantic and logico -communicative.
The syntactic structure of the sentence can be analysed at two levels: pre-functional (sentence
constituents are words and word groups) and functional (sentence constituents are parts of the
sentence). There is no direct correspondence between units of these levels.
John wrote a letter. NVN — SPO John had a snack. NVN — SP
The semantic structure of the sentence is a reflection of a certain situation or event which includes
a process as its dynamic centre, the doer and the objects of the process and certain circumstances
and conditions of its realization.
This division into two parts, the theme and the rheme, is called the actual sentence division, or the
functional sentence perspective.
There is one more aspect of the sentence as a unit of speech — the use of sentences in social
interaction, their function in particular contexts of use. For example, the statementI I have no
cigarettes can be interpreted in certain contexts as a command or request. So sentences can be
analysed from the point of view of the intentions of the speaker, the effect of the utterance on the
interlocuter, the appropriateness of the utterance in a given context. This aspect is called
pragmatic.

53. One-member sentencesOne-member sentences in English are of two types: nominal

sentences and verbal sentences.
Nominal sentences are those in which the principal part is expressed by a noun. They state the
existence of the things expressed by them. They are typical of descriptions.
Nominal sentences may be:
a) unextended.Silence. Summer. Midnight.
b) extended.Dusk - of a summer night.
Verbal sentences are those in which the principal part is expressed by a non-finite form of the
verb, either an infinitive or a gerund. Infinitive and gerundial one-member sentences are mostly
used to describe different emotional perceptions of reality.To think of that!
Elliptical (incomplete) sentences An elliptical sentence is a sentence in which one or more word-
forms in the principal positions are omitted. Ellipsis here refers only to the structural elements of
the sentence, not the informational ones. This means that those words can be omitted, because
they have only grammatical, structural relevance, and do not carry any new relevant information.
In English elliptical sentences are only those having no word-forms in the subject and predicate
positions, i.e., in the positions which constitute the structural core of the sentence.
There are several types of elliptical sentences.
1. Sentences without a word-form in the subject position.Looks like rain.
2. Sentences without word-forms in the subject position and part of the predicate position. In such
cases the omitted part of the predicate may be either a) an auxiliary verb or b) a link verb.a)
Going home soon?b) Not bad.
3. Sentences without a word-form only in part of the predicate position, which may be an
auxiliary or a link verb.You seen them?
4. Sentences without word-forms both in the subject and the predicate position. Such ellipses
occur in various responses.What time does Dave come for lunch? - One o'clock.
5. Sentences without a word-form in the predicate position. Such ellipses occur only in replies to
questions.Who lives there? - Jack.

. A simple sentence contains one predication. It is monopredicative. A composite sentence is

polypredicative. It contains two or more predications, or clauses. Structurally a clause may not
differ from a sentence, and in many cases clauses can be turned into sentences. Functionally they
differ essentially: a sentence is an independent utterance, a clause is part of the smallest utterance.
Clauses in a composite sentence are joined by coordination or subordination. Coordinate clauses
are equal in rank. A subordinate clause usually serves as an adjunct to some head-word in the
principle clause. There are also structures with coordination and subordination.
Besides simple and composite sentences there are structures which are called semi-composite
(осложненные). Here belong sentences with homogeneous subjects or predicates (semi-
compound) and sentences with secondary predications (semi-complex).
Thus, syntactic positions in a sentence may be filled in:
1) by words or phrases (simple sentence)
It is necessary to do it.
2) by secondary predications (semi-composite sentence)
It is necessary for him to do it.
3) by clauses (complex sentence)
It is necessary that he should do it.
Clauses may be connected by special connective words (syndetically) or without them
(asyndetically). Connectives may be subdivided into two main groups: -conjunctions and
conjunctive pronouns and adverbs (sometimes particles). Conjunctions perform the connective
function only. Conjunctive words, belonging to other parts of speech, are notional constituents of
clauses: I wonder who told you about it. (Who connects clauses and it is the subject of the
subordinate clause).
The distinction between coordination and subordination may be very vague, especially in
asyndetic sentences:
You are an architect, you ought to know all about it. There is a view that coordination and
subordination are clearly distinguished only in syndetic sentences and asyndetic sentences
cannot be divided into compound and complex. Compare the two approaches: 1. Composite
Sentence
Complex Compound Complex
The second point of view can hardly be accepted. Compare: (1) I know that he is here.
(2) I know he is here..
But there are structures, both syndetic and asyndetic, admitting of different interpretations.
A coordinating conjunction may express relations typical of subordination:
You must interfere, for they are getting angry.
Compound - ~~r - -s-
Synd. Asynd. Synd. Asynd.
II. Composite Sentence Syndetic Asyndetic
A subordinating conjunction may express relations of coordination:
His sense of responsibility is extreme, while you have practically none.

47. What grammatical categories are characteristic of Infinitive, Participle I,

Gerund?
Through the opposition of finite and non-finite forms the category of finitude is
revealed. Finites present marked and intensive member of the opposition. Non-finite
forms present unmarked and extensive member of the opposition.
The finites can be subdivided into 3 systems - moods: indicative, imperative,
subjunctive.Formal morphological characteristics.
Combinability and functions. Non-verbal character of verbals reveals itself in their
syntactical functions. Thus, the infinitive and the gerund perform the main syntactical
functions of the noun, which are those of subject, object and predicative. Participle I
functions as attribute, predicative and adverbial modifier; participle II as attribute and
predicative. They cannot form a predicate by themselves, although unlike non-verbal
parts of speech they can function as part of a compound verbal predicate.
The infinitive has the verb categories of voice (to praise – to be praised), order (to
keep – to have kept) and aspect (to bring – to be bringing).
The gerund is a non-finite form of the verb with some noun features.
Morphologically the verbal character of the gerund is manifested in the categories of
voice and order.
Participle is a non-finite form of the verb with some adjectival and adverbial
features. The verbal character of participle is manifested morphologically in the
categories of voice and order.

Participle I (present participle) is fully homonymous with the gerund: it is also an

‘ing-form’ (or, rather, four ‘ing-forms’, cf.: writing, being written, having written,
having been written). But its semantics is different: it denotes processual quality,
combining verbal features with features of the adjective and the adverb; participle I
can be characterized as a phenomenon of hybrid processual-qualifying nature,
intermediary between the verb and the adjective/adverb
Participle II, like participle I, denotes processual quality and can be characterized as a
phenomenon of hybrid processual-qualifying nature. It has only one form,
traditionally treated in practical grammar as the verbal “third form”, used to build the
analytical forms of the passive and the perfect of finites, e.g.: is taken; has taken.

48. The double nature of the Infinitive. The paradigm of the infinitive. The grammatical
categories revealed in it.
Double nature of the infinitive. The Infinitive is the most generalized, the most abstract form of
the verb, serving as the verbal name of a process; it is used as the derivation base for all the other
verbal forms. That is why the infinitive is traditionally used as the head word for the
lexicographic entry of the verb in dictionaries.
The infinitive combines verbal features with features of the noun; it is a phenomenon of hybrid
processual-substantive nature, intermediary between the verb and the noun. It has voice and
aspect forms, e.g.: to write, to be writing, to have written, to be written, to have been written;. The
non-verbal properties of the infinitive are displayed in its syntactic functions and its
combinability. The infinitive performs all the functions characteristic of the noun

49. The double nature of the Participle. The paradigm of the Participle. The grammatical
categories revealed in it.

50. Peculiarities of Participle II.

51. What is a phrase? What is the difference between a phrase and a sentence?

52. What syntactic relations exist between the elements of a phrase?

53. According to what principles are phrases classified?

54. What is a sentence? What are the functions of a sentence?

55. What are the principles to classify sentences?

56. What are the structural types of sentences? What is the difference between them?

57. What is the difference between elliptical and 1-member sentences?

58. The approaches to classify composite sentences.

1. The composite sentence. General characteristics approaches to classify clauses.
General characteristics - The composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative lines,
i.e. it consists of two or more clauses.
Composite sentences display two principal types of construction: hypotaxis (subordination) and
parataxis (coordination).
Within a composite sentence clauses may be joined by means of coordination or subordination,
thus forming a compound or a complex sentence respectively.
Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements to make them equal in rank.
Subordination is a way of linking grammatical elements that makes one of them dependent upon
the other (or they are mutually dependent).
The means of combining clauses into a polypredicative sentence are divided into syndetic, i.e.
conjunctional, and asyndetic, i. e. non-conjunctional.
The word "composite" is used by H. Poutsma as a common term for both the compound and
complex sentences. There are three types of composite sentences in Modern English:
1. The compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses with no dependent one.
2. The complex sentence contains one dependent clause and one or more independent clauses.
The latter usually tells something about the main clause and is used as a part of speech or as a part
of sentence.
3. The semi-composite sentence combines the two previous types. The compound-complex
sentences are those which have at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent
(subordinate) clause in its structure: Blair found herself smiling at him and she took the letter he
held out to her.
That there are three types of composite sentences in languages is contemporary approach to this
issue. Historically not all the grammarians were unanimous in this respect. According to it H.
Sweet there are structurally two types of sentences: simple and complex. “Two or more sentences
may be joined together to form a single complex sentence … In every complex there is one
independent clause, called the principal clause together with at least one dependent clause, which
stands in the relation of adjunct to the principal clause. The dependent clause may be either
coordinate or subordinate”.
Examples: Principal clause 1.You shall walk, and I will ride.
Coordinate clause
Co-complex
Principal clause 2. You are the man I want.
Subordinate clause
Sub-complex
As one can see in H. Sweets conception there’s no place for compound sentences since even so-
called “cocomplex” there’s subordination.
One of the representatives of structural linguists Ch. Fries considers two kinds of composite
sentences: sequence sentences and included sentences. The sequence sentences consist of
situation sentence and sequence sentence.
Example:1. The government has set up an agency called Future builders.
2. It has a certain amount of fund to make loans to social enterprises.
These two sentences are connected with each-other. The first sentence is a situation sentence and
the second one is a sequence sentence since it develops the idea of the situation sentence.
In the following example “The biggest loan has gone to M. Trust, which runs a school for
handicapped children.” There are also two sentences included into one.
C.H. Fries, as we see, makes an attempt to reject the traditional classification and terms. He
substitutes for the traditional doctrine his theory of included sentences and sequences of
sentences.
We shall classify the composite sentences into three types as has been mentioned above.
59.Communicative types of sentences.The sentence is above all a communicative unit;
therefore, the primary classification of sentences is based on the communicative principle,
traditionally defined as “the purpose of communication”. According to the purpose of
communication, sentences are subdivided into declarative, interrogative and imperative.
As a declarative sentence immediately expresses a proposition, its actual division pattern
has a complete form, its rheme making up the centre of some statement.
As an imperative sentence does not directly express a proposition, its rheme represents the
informative nucleus not of an explicit proposition, but of an inducement in which the
thematic subject is usually zeroed. If the inducement is emphatically addressed to the
listener, or to the speaker himself, or to the third person, thematic subjects have an explicit
form.
The differential feature of the actual division pattern of an interrogative sentence is
determined by the fact that its rheme is informationally open because this type of sentence
expresses an inquiry about information which the speaker does not possess. The function of
the rheme in an interrogative sentence consists in marking the rhematic position in a
response sentence, thus programming its content. Different types of questions are
characterized by different types of rhemes.

60. What is the sentence paradigm?

Paradigmatic finds its expression in a system of appositions making the corresponding
meaningful (functional) categories syntactic oppositions are realized by correlated sentence
patterns, the relations between which can be described as “transformations”.
e. g. A question can be described as transformationally produced from a statement a
negation as transformationally produced from an affirmation:
e. g. You are fond of the kid - Are you fond of the kid? You are fond of the kid - You are
not fond of the kid.
Similarly a composite sentence is to be presented as derived from two or more simple
sentences.
E. g. He turned to the waiter + The waiter stood in the door -- He turned to the waiter who
stood in the door.
The initial basic elements of syntactic derivation should be considered as the “Kernel
sentence”. Structurally the Kernel sentence coincides with the elementary sentence. By
way of example let’s take the following sentence:
I saw he come. Within the frame work of paradigmatic description this sentence is
produced from the two Kernel sentences : I saw him. + He come. – I saw him come. It can
be shown as a transformational combination of the Kernel pattern- formulas Subj. Obj.
Subj. Subj. Obj. N1 pro.—V1f – N2 pro. + N2 pro. – V2f ---- N1 pro. - V1f – N2 pro. –
V2if.

61. On what principles are complex sentences classified?

The complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination.
It is derived from two or more base sentences one of which performs the role of a matrix in
relation to the others, the insert sentences. The matrix function of the corresponding base sentence
may be more rigorously and less rigorously pronounced, depending on the type of subordinative
connection realized.
Clauses of the complex sentence can be joined like in compound sentences either synthetically
(by means of subordinators) or asyndetically (by means of zero subordinator). The subordinators
fall into two basic types those that occupy a notional position in the subordinate clause and those
that do not occupy such a position hence they fall into positional subordinators and non-positional
ones. Bloch distinguishes the following positional subordinators – who, what, whose, which, that,
where, when, why, as. –for ex.: I don’t knowwhat has happened really. Non positional
subordinator - since, before, until, if, in case, because, so that, in order that, though, however,
than, as if, etc.
For ex.: She stood in the corridor as if she didn’t know where to go.
There are two types of the classification of subordinate clauses.
The 1st – the functional classification, which is based on the similarity of subordinate clauses to
parts of the sentence. According to this classification they distinguish:
1. Subordinate clauses of primary nominal positions; ( subject, predicative and object clauses)
2. Subordinate clauses of secondary nominal positions; ( attributive and appositive clauses)
3. Subordinate clauses of adverbial positions including adverbial clauses of various types such of
time, place etc.
62. What is the Predictivity? Predication?
The correlation of the thought expressed in the sentence with the situation of speech is called
predicativity. Predicativiry has three main components: modality, time and person, expressed by
the categories of mood, tense and person. So the predicate verb is the main means of expressing
predicativity.
The person component of predicativity is also expressed by the subject. Thus predicativity is
expressed by the subject-predicate group, or predication. Predication constitutes the basic
structure of the sentence.
Predicativity is also expressed by intonation, which is the essential feature of the sentence as a
unit of speech.
A sentence may contain primary and secondary predication: / heard someone singing. The group
someone singing is called the secondary predication, as it resembles the subject-predicate group,
or the primary predication, structurally and semantically: it consists of two main components,
nominal and verbal, and names an event or situation. But it cannot be correlated with reality
directly and cannot constitute an independent unit of communication, as verbals have no
categories of mood, tense and person. The secondary predication is related to the situation of
speech indirectly, through the primary predications.

63. What is different between primary and secondary predication?

In Modern English there are several ways of expressing secondary predication. One of
them is what is frequently termed the complex object /I saw him run./ The primary
predication in this sentence is between the subject I and the predicate saw. I is the doer of
the action expressed by the predicate verb. The secondary predication is between him and
run: him is not the subject of a sentence or a clause, and run is not its predicate.
Views vary on the syntactic function of the group “run”. The main difference is between
those who think that “run” is a syntactic unit, and those who think that “I” is one part of the
sentence, and “run” another. If the phrase is taken as a syntactic unit, it is very natural to
call it a complex object; it stands in an object relation to the predicate verb “saw” and
consists of two elements.
64. Semi-composite sentences and their types.
Besides simple and composite sentences there are structures which are called semi-
composite (осложненные). Here belong sentences with homogeneous subjects or
predicates (semi-compound) and sentences with secondary predications (semi-complex).
The semi-compound sentence is a semi-composite sentence built up on the principle of
coordination. The structure of the semi-compound sentence is derivationally to be traced
back to minimum two base sentences having an identical element belonging to one or both
of their principal syntactic positions, i.e. either the subject, or the predicate, or both.
The semi-complex sentence is a semi-composite sentence built up on the principle of
subordination. The semi-complex sentences fall into a number of subtypes. Their basic
division is dependent on the character of predicative fusion: this may be effected either by
the process of position-sharing (word-sharing), or by the process of direct linear expansion.
The sentences based on position-sharing fall into those of subject-sharing (e.g. The moon
rose red.) and those of object-sharing (e.g. I saw him come.).
The sentences based on semi-predicative linear expansion fall into those of attributive
complication (e.g. This is a novel translated from Greek.), adverbial complication (e.g.
When asked about it, he always kept silent.), and nominal-phrase complication (e.g. For me
to learn it is easy.). Each subtype is related to a definite complex sentence as its explicit
structural prototype.

65. What structures with secondary predication do you know?

Another type of secondary predication may be seen in the so-called absolute construction.
This appears, for instance, in the following example: Weather permitting, we shall go on a
trip. The absolute construction expresses what is usually called accompanying
circumstances – something that happens alongside of the main action. But these relations
are not indicated by any grammatical means. The stylistic colouring of the absolute
construction should also be noted. It is basically a feature of literary style, “She had hoped
that the war being over, life would gradually resume its old face” and unfit for colloquial
speech.
66. Types of word order
In English, we follow one main pattern for normal sentences and one main pattern for
sentences that ask a question.
a. Standard Word Order
A sentence’s standard word order is Subject + Verb + Object (SVO). Remember, the
subject is what a sentence is about; so, it comes first. For example:
The dog (subject) + eats (verb) + popcorn (object).
The subject comes first in a sentence because it makes our meaning clear when
writing and speaking. Then, the verb comes after the subject, and the object comes
after the verb; and that’s the most common word order. Otherwise, a sentence doesn’t
make sense, like this:
Eats popcorn the dog. (verb + object + subject)
B. Questions
When asking a question, we follow the order auxiliary verb/modal auxiliary + subject
+ verb (ASV). Auxiliary verbsand modal auxiliaries share meaning or function, many
which are forms of the verb “to be.” Auxiliary verbs can change form, but modal
auxiliaries don’t. Here’s a chart to help you:
As said, questions follow the form ASV; or, if they have an object, ASVO. Here are
some examples:
Can he cook? “Can” (auxiliary) “he” (subject) “cook” (verb)
Does your dog like popcorn? “Does” (A) “your dog” (S) “like” (V) “popcorn” (O)

67. Types of inversion

Inversion in questions
The most common type of inversion in English consists in moving the auxiliary verb
into the position before the subject. This type of inversion is most often used in
questions. For example:
Did Lena go to the park yesterday?
Construction "there is, there are"
Inversion is required in the construction "there is, there are" and in cases where a
modal verb or a main verb is used in such constructions.
There are several books on the table.
Inversion after "here" and "there"
Inversion takes place in sentences beginning with the adverb "here" or "there". Some
phrases beginning with "here" or "there" have idiomatic character.
Here is the book you asked for.
Constructions with "so" and "neither"
Inversion is required in responses like "So do I" and "Neither do I". (See So do I.
Neither do I. in the section Phrases.)
Conditional sentences
Inversion is required in the subordinate clause of conditional sentences in which the
subordinating conjunction "if" is omitted. If the conjunction "if" is used, inversion is
not used.
Were I not so tired, I would go there with you. – If I weren't so tired, I would go there
with you.
Inversion after direct speech
Inversion takes place in constructions with verbs like "said, asked, replied" placed
after direct speech.
"I'll help you," said Anton.
Inversion in negative constructions
Inversion is required in negative sentences beginning with the following negative
adverbs and adverbial phrases: never; never before; not only...but also; not until; no
sooner; at no time; on no account; under no circumstances.
Inversion in exclamatory sentences
Inversion is sometimes used for emphasis in exclamatory sentences. Compare
inverted and standard word order in the following exclamatory sentences.
Oh my, am I hungry! – I'm so hungry!

68.Functions of word order

The grammatical function of word order.
The main function of word order is to express grammatical relations and determine
the grammatical status of a word by fixing its position in the sentence. There exist
two ways of arranging words - direct word order and inverted word order.
The linking function of word order
Is to express continuity of thought in sentences (or clauses) following one another.
This continuity is often supported by demonstrative pronouns and adverbs.
Some people looked down on him. Those people he despised.
Similarly, for purposes of enumeration, a word (or words) marking continuity is
sometimes placed at the beginning of the sentence, with the verb immediately
following.
Next comes the most amusing scene.
The emphatic and communicative functions of word order
Is to make prominent or emphatic that part of the sentence which is more important
or informative in the speaker’s opinion. Prominence and emphasis are achieved by
placing the word in an unusual position: words normally placed at the beginning of
the sentence (such as the subject) are placed towards the end, whereas words usually
occupying positions closer to the end of the sentence (such as objects and
predicatives) are shifted to the beginning.
End position is always emphatic for the subject. Very often this reordering results in
the detachment of the subject.
Must have cost a pretty penny, this dress of yours!

69. What is modality? Means of expressing modality?

Modality (Mod)- is a linguistic term which denotes the relation of the contents of speech to reality
as viewed by the speaker.
Modality expressed by modal verbs (must, may, etc.) shows the speaker’s attitude to the action
itself – obligation, probability, certainty, doubt, etc. E.g. He must be coming here.
Modality expressed by modal words shows the speaker’s attitude to the content of the statement –
regret, supposition, desirability, etc. E.g. Perhaps, he will come.
Modal verbs, which have tense opposites may be used in the Subjunctive (the marked members)
can – could
may – might
have – had
are – were
shall – should
will – would
E.g. He might have fallen ill - mood modality, expresses unreality, might is Subjunctive II
present, while modal verb modality expresses supposition - uncertainty.
We also have the phonetical way of expressing modality by means of intonation. By changing the
intonation of the sentence we may express doubt, probability, astonishment or some other
modality.
The category of voice is represented in M. E. by the system of opposemes: loves – is loved, to
love – to be loved, etc, and it shows whether the object is the doer of the action or its object. E. g.
He opened the door. The door was opened (by him).
Generally the combination be + Ven is considered to be passive when it denotes action (The
house is painted white every year) or the compound nominal predicate when it denotes state: the
house is painted white; he felt tired, etc.
Practically the combination be + Ven is surely the passive voice when it is accompanied by an
adverbial, a by-phrase or continuous form; and participle II is of a durative (non-terminative)
verb:
The door is closed at midnight
70. What models of sentence analysis are there? The distributional model (Ch.Fries) shows the
linear order of sentence constituents. The syntactic structure of the sentence is presented as a
sequence of positional classes of words. Showing the linear order of classes of words the model
does not show the syntactic relations of sentence constituents. It does not show the ambiguity of
sentence. This drawback is overcome by the IC-model. A sentence is a structured string of words,
grouped into phrases. So sentence constituents are words and word-groups. The basic principle
for grouping words into phrases (endo- or exocentric) is cohesion, or the possibility to substitute
one word for the whole group without destroying the sentence structure. The sentence is built by
2 immediate constituents: NP+VP, each of which may have constituents of its own. Constituents
which cannot be further divided are called ultimate (UC). The IС model exists in 2 main versions:
the analytical model and the derivation tree. The analytical model divides the sentence into IC-s
and UC-s. The derivation tree shows the syntactic dependence of sentence constituents.

71. The main aim of the distributional analyses.

The distributional analysisis used to fix and study the units of language in relation to their
contextual environments, i. e. adjoining elements in the text. In the distributional analysis
at the morphemic level, phonemic distribution of morphemes and morphemic distribution
of morphemes are discriminated. The study is conducted in two stages. At the first stage,
the analyzed text is divided into recurrent segments consisting of phonemes. These
segments are called “morphs”. At the second stage, the environmental features of the
morphs are established and the corresponding identifications are effected.

72. The main aim of the transformational analysis

Analysis, showing derivational relations of sentences, is called transformational(TModel).
As distributional patterns are in a number of cases polysemantic, the aim of the
transformational procedure is of help not only in the analysis of semantic sameness /
difference of the lexical units under investigation but also in the analysis of the factors that
account for their polysemy. Transformations may be subdivided into single-base (changing
the kernel structure) and two-base (combining 2 structures).Single-base transformations
may be of two types: modifying the kernel structure and changing the kernel structure:(1)
She is working hard — She is not working hard.(2) She is working hard —Her hard work.
The main types of transformations:1)passive transformations ,transformations of
replacement; transformations of omission; transformations of nominalization;1)The small
lady listented to me attentively. — I was listened attentively by the small lady.TM shows
that sentences with different surface structures paraphrase, because they are derived from
the same deep structure: He arrived—his arrival—for him to arrive -his arriving.TM
shows that some sentences are ambiguous, because they derive from,distinct deep
structures:Flyfing planes can be dangerous– (1) Planes are dangerous.–(2) Flying is
dangerous. So TM is an effective method of deciding grammatical ambiguity.
73.The notion of kernel sentences and they models.
Different sentence types are structurally and semantically related. So the syntactic structure
of a given sentence may be described by making these relations explicit.Sentences, in
which all constituents are obligatory, are called basic structures, or elementary sentences,
or kernel sentences. Linguists single out from 2 to 7 kernel sentences: 1) NV 2) NVN 3)
NVPrepN 4) N is N 5) N is A 6) N is Adv. 7) N is PrepN. Mary cried. Mark played
baseball. Love is the ocean. The sea is far. The structure of all other sentences is a result of
certain transformations of kernel structures. 

74.Types of connection between clauses in a composite sentence

There are 2 main types of connection of clauses in a composite sentence are subordination and
coordination. Coordinate clauses are equal in rank. The leading clause and a sequential clause (He
came and we had coffee. We had coffee and he came). A subordinate clause usually serves as an
adjunct to some head-word in the principle clause.
Coordinate clauses may be linked together with or without a connector; in the first case they are
joined syndetically:Yesterday I bought a penny fiddle; asyndeticaily: Humpty Dumpty sat on a
wall, Humpty Dumpty had a great fall. Syndetic coordination is realized with a number of
connectors: conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for. conjunctive adverbs: moreover, besides,
however, yet, still, otherwise, therefore. In writing coordinate clauses may be marked off by: a
comma, a semicolon, a colon, a dash. Subordinate clause is a clause which does not express
complete thought and depends on another clause (main clause) to express complete thought and;
begins with a subordinate conjunction or a relative pronoun. There are three basic types of
subordinate clauses which are divided according to their function in the sentence:Adverb clauses;
adjective clauses. noun clauses.

75. Types and means of relations between clauses in a compound sentence

From the point of view of the relationship between coordinate clauses, we distinguish four kinds
of coordinate connection:  copulative,  adversative,  disjunctive and  causative-consecutive.
The type of connection is expressed not only by means of coordinating connectives, but also by
the general meaning of clauses conveyed by their lexical and grammatical content. Copulative
coordination implies that the information conveyed by coordinate clauses is in some way similar.
The copulative connectors are: the conjunctions and, nor, neither... nor, not only... but (also), as
well as, and the conjunctive adverbs then, moreover, besides. (The front door to the house
opened, and a man and a woman stepped out on the wooden porch). Adversative coordination
joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction or contrast. Adversative connectors are: the
conjunctions but, while, whereas, the conjunctive adverbs however, yet, still, nevertheless, and
the conjunctive particle only. Adversative coordination may also be realized asyndetically( The
story was amusing, but nobody laughed.(opposition)
Disjunctive coordination implies a choice between two mutually exclusive alternatives. The
disjunctive conjunctions are or, either... or, the conjunctive adverbs are else (or else), otherwise.
(Don’t be late, otherwise you may not be let in). Causative-consecutive coordination joins
clauses connected in such a way that one of them contains a reason and the other - a consequence.
The second clause may contain either the reason or the result of the event conveyed by the
previous clause. The only causative coordinating conjunction is for. A causative clause may be
also joined asyndetically.( The days became longer, for it was now springtime)

76.Aspects of the sentence structure.

The sentence have three main aspects: structural (it says how the sentence is built-
WO), semantic ( it says what the sentence is about), and communicative ( it says
what for the sentence was pronounced and what is the most important information it
contains). Structurally parts of the sentence may be of three types: simple(expressed
by words and phrases), composite: compound(coordination),
complex(subordination).Clauses within the structure of a composite sentence may be
connected with the help of formal markers (conjunctions and connectives: relative
pronouns and relative adverbs -syndetically) and without any formal markers –
asyndetically.
77. The meaning of the pragmatic aspect of a sentence.
The study of the communicative functions of utterances in particular contexts of use
is the sphere of pragmatics. There is no general theory of pragmatics, its is interested
in a variety of topics. It may be characterized as the analysis of speech acts, the study
of principles of conversational performance: usage, understanding, appropriateness.
Semantics is concerned with sentence meaning, pragmatics with utterance
interpretation.(I have no cigarettes). The sentence meaning is derived from the
meanings of lexical items and grammatical structure. But this sentence may be
interpreted differently, depending on the context and background knowledge of the
interlocutors: (1) Could you spare me a cigarette? (2) Give me some cigarettes.(3)
You promised to buy cigarettes.In communication we expect the interlocutor to be
co-operative, makes an attempt to understand what we say and make relevant
responses. The development of pragmatics influenced the methodology of teaching,
the present phase of which is communicative approach, defining the aim of language
study as the use of appropriate language for particular situations.

78. Levels of the analysis of the syntactic structure of a sentence.

The sentence is a structural, semantic and communicative unity. Accordingly the
three main aspects of the sentence are syntactic, semantic and logico
-communicative.
The syntactic structure of the sentence can be analyzed at two levels: pre-functional
(sentence constituents are words and word groups) and functional (sentence
constituents are parts of the sentence). There is no direct correspondence between
units of these levels. John wrote a letter. NVN — SPO John had a snack. NVN —
SP

79.Elements of the semantic structure of a sentence

The semantic structure of the sentence is a reflection of a certain situation or event which
includes a process as its dynamic centre, the doer and the objects of the process and certain
circumstances and conditions of its realization.The semantic structure of the sentence is
often called deep structure, the syntactic structure is called surface structure. There is no
direct correspondence between deep and surface structure: John opened the door. NVN
(SPO) — doer (agent), action, object. The key opened the door. NVN (SPO) — instrument,
action, object. These two aspects characterize the sentence as a unit of language.
Elements of the semantic structure: Semantic predicates- verbs devoid of any forms;
Nominal elements: semantic arguments/ deep sentence cases ( semantic
rules);Circumstances; Attributes; Participants are named by attributes. They are in
different semantic relations to the predicate; they are judgments about the events, such as:
Who did it? Who did it happen to? What got changed?Semantic predicate determines the
number and types of its arguments.

80. Elements of the logico-communicative structure of a sentence

Logico-communicative aspect characterizes the sentence as a unit of speech, or utterance.
The sentence as a unit of communication usually consists of two parts: the topic for
discussion, (something, about which a statement is made), and the information about the
topic, or the statement itself.This division into two parts, the theme and the rheme, is called
the actual sentence division, or the functional sentence perspective.Different aspects of the
sentence are reflected in numerous definitions, which may be logical, psychological,
structural.

81.The main means to represent the theme and the rheme

The sentence is also a unit of speech, a minimum free utterance, whose main purpose is to
convey information, to express thoughts and feelings.Usually the utterance consists of two
parts: the topic of discussion (something about which a statement is made) and the new
information (which adds most to the process of communication). These two sections are
called the theme and the rheme, or topic and comment. Some sentences contain only the
rheme, they are monorhematic: It is getting dark. In the majority of sentences the
constituents are either rhematic or thematic. There are also transitional
elements. Sentences containing the theme and the rheme are called dirhematic. Language
means of expressing the theme:- Stating it explicitly as the subject - Using passive voice
to transform an object into a subject;- Through periphrastic constructions like "As for...",
"Speaking of...", - Using left dislocation(moving the topic to the beginning of the
sentence).- The definite article. Means to express the rheme:-a particular word order;- an
emphatic construction (“there is”, “it is … that”);-the indefinite article (morphological
means);-ellipsis;-graphical means;-lexical means(even, just, only).

82.What is Text? What are its elements?

Text as the largest speech unit may be divided into smaller units, consisting of two or more
connected sentences. These units, characterized by the topical unity and semantico-
syntactic cohesion, are called supraphrasal unities. A text has texture, and this is what
distinguishes it from other linguistic units. The texture is provided by the cohesive relation
or the co-reference of two elements appearing in anaphoric or cataphoric relations.
Anaphoric and cataphoric relations are formal links that mark various types of inter-clause
and inter-sentence relationships within a text. These formal links are otherwise called
cohesive devices. Structurally the text is divided into:Introduction,Body,Conclusion. One
and the same text can be viewed differently depending on audience.

83. Text and discourse, the treatment of the terms.

The term discourse refers to a continuous stretch of (especially spoken) utterance larger
than a sentence. Within this broad notion several different applications may be found.
Some linguists do not distinguish between the notions text and discourse, but usage varies
greatly. Thus discourse may be understood as a dynamic process and text as the physical
product, a similar distinction sees text as a notion applied to suface structure, and discourse
— to deep structure. From the opposite viewpoint text is an abstract notion, discourse
being its realization. Apart from this there is a tendency for texts to be thought of as
monologues, usually written, whereas discourses are often thought of as dialogues, usually
spoken. In general, the terms text and discourse may be used to identify a piece of spoken
or written language. Text as the largest speech unit may be divided into smaller units,
consisting of two or more connected sentences. These units, characterized by the topical
unity and semantico-syntactic cohesion, are called supraphrasal unities.
84.Means of intersentential connection in a text.
There are different means of expressing co-referential relations, or referential identity. Co-
reference in noun phrases is expressed by substitution, use of determiners; in other
structures by adverbs (here, there, then, particles so, not) the auxiliary verb (to do): I know
it better than you do.A process similar to substitution is representation, or use of part of a
whole: I couldn't help him though I tried to.Means of expressing intersentential
connections either point back (anaphoric connection) or forward (cataphoric connection).
There are certain linguistic principles governing the structure of texts which influences the
structure of sentences. There are various means of sentence connection and transition from
one unity to another. These means may be grammatical, lexical, prosodic. Lexico-
grammatical means of sentence connection are word order; conjunctions and other
connective words; time and place relators; incomplete (elliptical) structures, depending
on the context.