CE202

Strength of Materials

Chapter Two
Stress and Strain-
Axial Loading
 2.1. Introduction

Chapter 2 is concerned with deformation of a

structural member under axial loading.
 2.2 Normal Strain under axial loading
Load Deflection Diagram

Rod BC δ

Length L

Uniform cross-sectional area A

Suspended at B
P
σ = = stress
A

Note that in order to obtain similar deflection to
that of case (1), the magnitude of the load
applied on the rod of case (2) was doubled
{similar normal stress}.

2P P
σ= =
2A A

When the length of the rod was doubled {case

(3)}, the resulting deflection was doubled too.
 Therefore we introduce the concept of strain (deformation per unit
length).

δ
ε= = normal strain P
L

Strain is dimensionless quantity (No Unit).
depend on the

Thus, plotting σ against the strain(εε) we dimensions of the
obtain a curve which is characteristic of specimen.
properties of the material and does not δ
depend upon the dimensions of the σ
particular specimen used. The stress and
strain are defined as:
P
σ = = stress does not depend on
A the dimensions of
δ
ε= = normal strain the specimen.
L
ε

A rod (BC) with a varying x-section

∆δ dδ
ε = lim ∆ x → 0 =
∆ x dx
 2.3. Stress-Strain Diagram

Stress-Strain Test
P L

δ L − Lo P
ε= = σ=
Lo Lo A

Gage length

ε

Stress-Strain Diagram:
Ultimate stress
Fracture stress

Yield stress

Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials

Examples: steel, alloys of other metals

 The large deformation after reaching σy is caused by slippage of the material

along an oblique surface and is due, therefore, primarily to shearing stress.
 The cone-shaped surface , which forms on an angle of approximately 45o with the
original surface, indicates that shear is primarily responsible for the failure of
ductile materials. Remember the fact that under axial load, shearing stress are
largest on surface forming an angel of 45o with the axial load.

Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials

Example: cast iron, glass and stones

 Brittle materials are characterized by the fact that rupture

occurs without any noticeable prior change in the rate of
elongation.
 The failure surface (perpendicular to loading direction) indicates that the normal
stresses are primarily responsible for the failure of brittle materials.
 Ultimate strength =breaking strength
 Strain at rupture for brittle material << for ductile material

Stress-Strain Diagram: General Notes

For most brittle materials, one finds that the ultimate strength in
compression is much larger than that in tension due to
presence of flaws, that tend to weaken the material in tension,
while not appreciably affecting it resistance to compression failure.

It is noteworthy to say that for a given steel, the yield strength is
the same in both tension and compression.

It should be indicate that necking (of steel) cannot occur in
compressions. Instead, the cylindrical specimen, that is usually
used, plugs under compressive stress.

Stress-Strain Diagram: Yielding Point
 For ductile materials the yield stress is taken to be the lower yield
point (load require to maintain yield). However , for a ductile
material, such as aluminum alloy with no clear yielding point, the
offset method is used to determine the yield point.

Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductility Measurement
I. Percent elongation, which is defined as:

 L − Lo 
Percentage Elongation =  B  100 %
 Lo 

Where Lo and LB denote the initial and final lengths (at rupture) of the
tensile test specimen, respectively.

II. Percentage reduction in the X-sectional area, defined as:

A − A 
Percentage Re duction =   100 %
o B

 A  o

Where Ao: initial cross-section area; and

AB: cross-section area at rapture.
 2.4. True Stress & True Strain

Engineering stress or strain are defines as follows:

P δ
σ = ; A o : Initial Area ε = ; L o : Initial Length
Ao Lo

True stress or strain are defines as follows:

∆L  L 
L
P dL
σ = ; A : Area of deformed specimen ε = Σ∆ ε = Σ = ∫Lo L = ln  ;
A L L
 o
∆ L : Increment of the distnace between th e gage marks.
L : Correspond ing value .

The result obtained from tensile and compression tests will yield
the same σ-ε plot, when true stress and true strain are used.
2.5. Hooke’s Law: Modulus of Elasticity
Ultimate stress
Fracture stress

Yield stress

 Below the yield stress (linear part)

ߪ = ‫߳ܧ‬ , E: Young's Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity)

Strength is affected by alloying, heat
treating, and manufacturing process
but stiffness (Modulus of Elasticity) is
not.

Most engineering structures are

designed to undergo relatively small
deformation, involving only the
straight-line portion of stress-strain
diagram

E: modulus of elasticity or young is modulus. It is a parameter that is being

used to evaluate the stiffness. The figure shown indicates to different
yielding, ultimate, and breaking stress and strain but to same “E” for
steel of different carbon contents and heat treatment.
 2.6. Elastic Versus Plastic Behavior

Elastic Behavior: if the strain caused by the application of a given
load disappear when the load is removed. This happens when the
applied stress is smaller the σy.

Plastic Behavior: if the stress
applied is higher than σy, the
resulting strain does not return to
zero when the stress (load) is
removed.

Question : what happens if a

specimen of the material represented
in previous Figure is loaded again &
again? AD: Permanent or Plastic Deformation

Answer: the loading sequence will rupture the specimen without

any warning, because the excessive plastic deformations to which
the specimen was subjected has caused radical changes in the
material characteristics.
 2.7. Repeated Loading; Fatigue

Some structures or machines
are loaded repeatedly such as: Fatigue Limit
Cranes, Crankshaft, Blades, and
Bridges.

The Fatigue resistance is

determined through repeated
loading of specimens using
different maximum stress
levels.

The stress level may not exceed the yield limit, yet the specimen
fails after being subjected to certain number of cycles.
 2.8. Deformation Under Axial Loading

Consider shown Rod.

Let σ ≤ Proportional Limit
 The previous equation is used if the rod is homogeneous
(constant E), has a uniform cross section of area (A), and is
loaded at its ends.

 From Hooke’s Law:

σ P
σ = Eε ε= =
E AE
 From the definition of strain:
δ
ε=
L
 Equating and solving for the deformation,
PL
δ =
AE

For a rod of variable cross section, we recall the equation:

dδ P
ε= → dδ = ε dx = dx
dx AE
L
Pdx
Hence, δ = ∫
0
AE

However, if the rod is loaded at other points than its end, or if consists of
several portions of various cross sections, and possibly of different
materials, the following equation is used:

P2
E2
E1

E1

Pi Li
δ =∑
i Ai Ei
δ
P1
L1

L2

L3

Relative Deformation Under Axial Loading

When the rod two ends are free

to move, the rod displacement
is measured by the relative
displacement, defined as:

δB/A = δB − δA

Where, δA and δB are respectively

displacements of points A and B.
Example (1)
Calculate the deflection of point D due
to applied loads.
Solution:
Example (2)

The rigid bar BDE is supported by two links AB and CD. Link AB is made of
aluminum (E = 70 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 500 mm2. Link
CD is made of steel (E = 200 GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of (600
mm2). For the 30-kN force shown, determine the deflection a) of B, b) of D,
and c) of E.
SOLUTION:

Displacement of B:
Free body: Bar BDE PL
δB =
AE
(− 60 ×103 N )(0.3 m )
=
(500 ×10-6 m2 )(70 ×109 Pa )
= −514 ×10− 6 m
∑MB = 0 δ B = 0.514 mm ↑
0 = −(30 kN × 0.6 m ) + FCD × 0.2 m
Displacement of D:
FCD = +90 kN tension δD =
PL
AE
∑ MD = 0
0 = −(30 kN × 0.4 m ) − FAB × 0.2 m
(90 ×103 N )(0.4 m )

FAB = −60 kN compression

=
(600 ×10-6 m2 )(200 ×109 Pa )
= 300 ×10− 6 m

δ D = 0.300 mm ↓

Displacement of E:

BB′ BH
=
DD′ HD
0.514 mm (200 mm ) − x
=
0.300 mm x
x = 73.7 mm

EE ′ HE
=
DD′ HD
δE
=
(400 + 73.7 )mm
0.300 mm 73.7 mm
δ E = 1.928 mm

δ E = 1.928 mm ↓
2.9. Statically Indeterminate problems

Structures for which internal forces and
reactions cannot be determined from statics
alone are said to be statically indeterminate.

A structure will be statically indeterminate

whenever it is held by more supports than
are required to maintain its equilibrium.

Redundant reactions are replaced with

unknown loads which along with the other
loads must produce compatible deformations.

Deformations due to actual loads and

redundant reactions are determined
separately and then added or superposed.
δ = δL +δR = 0
Example (3)
Determine the reactions at A and B for the steel bar and loading shown,
assuming a close fit at both supports before the loads are applied.
SOLUTION:

Consider the reaction at B as redundant,
release the bar from that support, and solve
for the displacement at B due to the applied
loads.

Solve for the displacement at B due to the

redundant reaction at B.

Require that the displacements due to the

loads and due to the redundant reaction be
compatible, i.e., require that their sum be
zero.

Solve for the reaction at A due to applied
loads and the reaction found at B.

Solve for the displacement at B due to the applied
loads with the redundant constraint released,

P1 = 0 P2 = P3 = 600 ×103 N P4 = 900 ×103 N

A1 = A2 = 400 ×10− 6 m 2 A3 = A4 = 250 ×10− 6 m 2

L1 = L2 = L3 = L4 = 0.150 m

Pi Li 1.125 ×109
δL = ∑ =
A
i i iE E

Solve for the displacement at B due to the

redundant constraint,
P1 = P2 = − RB

A1 = 400 ×10− 6 m 2 A2 = 250 ×10− 6 m 2

L1 = L2 = 0.300 m

δR = ∑
Pi Li
=−
( )
1.95 ×103 RB
A
i i iE E
• Require that the displacements due to the loads and due to
the redundant reaction be compatible,
δ = δL +δR = 0

δ = −
(
1.125 ×109 1.95 ×103 RB)=0
E E
RB = 577 ×103 N = 577 kN

• Find the reaction at A due to the loads and the reaction at B

∑ Fy = 0 = R A − 300 kN − 600 kN + 577 kN
R A = 323 kN

R A = 323 kN
RB = 577 kN