development.

We regard this component as absolutely cru- Instrumentation and Analytical Methodology in

cial to the preparation of effective practitioners and have
found that field laboratories are eager to accept our student Forensic Science
interns. R. E. Gaensslen
Department of Forensic Science
University of New Haven
Table 1. Full-Time Curriculum for MS Program in Forensic West Haven, CT
Science Thomas A. Kublc
FIRST YEAR Scientific Investigation Bureau
Nassau County Police Department
Fall Quarter Quarter Hours Mineola, NY
Modern Methods of Analysis 3 Peter J. Desio
Crime Scene Investigation 3
Department of Chemistry
Forensic Toxicology 3 University of New Haven
Criminal Justice Process 3_ West Haven, CT
12
Henry C. Lee
Winter Quarter
Connecticut State Police Laboratory
Forensic Materials 2
Meriden, CT
Forensic Chemistry Techniques I 4
Criminal Law 3
Elective
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2, 3, or 4
11, 12, 13 Forensic analysis generally consists of three different
Spring Quarter components which may be employed in any given case.1-2
Forensic Chemislry Technique II 4
Identification refers to the qualitative determination of the
Arson, Explosives and Gunshot Residue 3
Criminal Evidence 3
identity of a substance, based on measurements of its phys-
ical and chemical properties. Results of such identifications
Downloaded via 27.97.172.48 on April 6, 2021 at 16:45:46 (UTC).

Forensic Serology 3_
12
alone do not usually shed much new light on a case; however,
there are cases in which the identification of a substance
Summer Quarter
In-Service Training completes the forensic investigation. A controlled substance
possession case is a good example of the latter. Not only is
SECOND YEAR identification of the substance all that is required of the
Fall Quarter analyst, but also it is an essential legal requirement if the
Master's Paper8 4 charge is to be sustained. Individualization refers to the
Seminar 1 demonstration of common origin between two objects. At
Computers in the Laboratory 4 present, not many types of evidence can be completely indi-
Forensic Serology II (elective) or other elective 2, 3, or 4 vidualized. A true individualization is a demonstration that
11, 12, 13 a sample or item is unique within its own class or that
Total Quarter Hours: (Minimum) 47
questioned and known samples had a common origin. Re-
(Maximum) 51 construction refers to the establishment of the place, time,
a
The Master's Paper constitutes a major part of one quarter's academic program. and sequence of events that occurred during the perpetra-
Students may have worked on research during their academic program, but the paper may
also result from work they undertook as part of their internship, it is not the same type of
tion of a criminal act.
program of research work normally associated with an MS or PhD program in chemistry. Complete forensic analysis consists of: (1) recognition of
the physical evidence; (2) collection of the physical evidence,
observing appropriate preservation and documentation pro-
Table 2. Elective Courses8 cedures; (3) submission of the evidence for analysis; (4) anal-
Students are required to take two additional courses from the following list of
ysis of the evidence, which may involve identification and/or
electives. individualization procedures; (5) interpretation of the re-
sults of the examination in terms of the facts of the case; and
Industrial Hygiene Concepts in Pharmacology I, II (6) an attempt to reconstruct the events and present the
Analytical Separations Concepts in Toxicology I, If results and conclusions to appropriate investigative and ju-
Electroanalytical Chemislry I, II Environmental Toxicology
dicial bodies.
Optical Methods of Analysis I, II Pathology
Advanced Organic Chemistry I, II Drug Metabolism Physical Evidence
Physical Organic Chemistry Advanced Medicinal Chemistry I, II
Polymer Chemistry I, II, III Advanced Clinical Chemistry I, II Because virtually any object or material can be relevant
Identification of Organic Compounds Pharmacology of Drug Dependence physical evidence in a given case, it is quite difficult to arrive
Functions of Human Systems Biochemistry I, II, III at a single, suitable classification for physical evidence. A
Applications of Mass Spectrometry Forensic Serology II simple classification scheme for such evidence and one that
Victimology Criminal Procedures suffices for the present discussion is given in Table 1. A
Women and the Criminal Justice
variety of different types of physical evidence is classified in
System the table according to whether it may be considered phys-
Science and Technology in Private
Security
ical, chemical, or biological. The focus here is on instrumen-
Criminal Justice Planning and tal methods of analysis, which are most applicable to the
Development evidence classified as chemical or biological.
Directed Study in Forensic Chemistry Instrumental methods of analysis as applied to forensic
Materials Science and Engineering I, II science problems may be looked at in two ways. One might
Special Topics in Analytical Chemistry attempt to categorize the types of evidence that are amena-
I, II, III
Spectrometric Identification of
Organic Compounds
Isolation and Identification of Natural 1
Thornton, J. I., Lex et Scientia, 11, (1975).
Products 2
DeForest, P. FI., Gaensslen, R. E., and Lee, H. C., "Forensic
8
This may appear to be a lengthy list but should serve to provide information about the Science. An Introduction to Criminalistics,” McGraw-Hill, New York,
variety of areas that are applicable to this professional discipline. 1983.

1058 Journal of Chemical Education

 Table 1. Classes and Types o( Evidence Table 3. Some Instrumental Methods and Their Applicability to
Categories and Types of Physical Evidence
Physical Chemical Biological
Instrumental Method Categories and Types of Evidence
Objects; pieces of Drugs and Toxic Blood or Methodology to Which Applicable
objects Substances Body fluids
Plastics (pieces) Paints, pigments Hair Microscopical
Glass (pieces) Gunshot residues Tissues Visible General Examinations; Biological;
Imprints (fingerprints) Volatile substances Pollen Questioned Documents
Indentations (tire Accelerants, solvents Wood materials Polarized Light Crystals, Minerals, Soils, Paints,
impressions) Alcohols (esp. ethanol) Other plant- Glass, Explosive Residues
Striations (rifling Rubber materials derived matter Scanning Electron (SEM) Gunshot Residue, Paints,
impressions on bullets) Resins, plastics Feathers Microphysical Matching
Physical patterns Explosive residues Spectrophotometric/Spectral Drugs, Biochemical Assays, Enzyme
Firearms, bullets, Fibers Ultraviolet/Visible Assays, Organic Dyes and
cartridge cases Soil, glass Pigments, Inks
Toolmarks Miscellaneous trace Infrared Drugs, Fibers, Paints, Oils, Plastics,
Questioned documents evidence Organics
Fluorometry Oils, Fluorescent Organic
Substances, Gunshot Residue
Atomic Absorption Gunshot Residue, Quantitative
Table 2. Some Evidence Types and Applicable Instrumental
Elemental Analysis
Methods
Atomic Emission Alloys, Paints, Qualitative Elemental
Evidence type Applicable Instrumental Method Analysis
Other
Blood, Body Fluid, Tissue Spectrophotometry, Enzyme Assays X-Ray Diffractometry Drugs, Crystals, Minerals, Alloys,
Blood, Body Fluid, Tissue— Electrophoresis, Isoelectric Metals
genetic marker analysis Focusing Mass Spectrometry (inc. GC/MS) Organic Substances, Drugs,
Drugs, Toxic Substances UV and IR Spectrophotometry,X-ray Accelerants, Mixtures of
Diffractometry, Microscopy, GC/ Organics
MS, HPLC Neutron Activation Analysis Gunshot Residue, High Sensitivity
Paints, Pigments IR and Atomic Absorption Elemental Analysis
Spectrophotometry, Polarized Chromatographic/Separation
Light and Scanning Electron Thin-Layer (TLC) Drugs, Inks, Pigments, Pollutants
Microscopy, Emission Gas Chromatography (GC) Volatiles, Solvents, Alcohols,
Spectrometry Toxins, Accelerants
IR Spectrophotometry, Polarized
Explosives Residues Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) Drugs, Paints, Explosive Residues,
Light Microscopy, HPLC Toxins
Gunshot Residues Neutron Activation Analysis, Atomic Protein and Isoenzyme Genetic
Electrophoresis
Absorption Spectrophotometry, Markers, Body Fluids
SEM Protein and Isoenzyme Genetic
Isoelectric Focusing
Accelerants, Solvents Gas Chromatography Markers of Blood, Body Fluids
Ethyl Alcohol (Blood or Breath) Gas Chromatography, Enzyme-
Coupled Assay
Hair Microscopy, Electrophoresis,
Isoelectric Focusing
Fibers Polarized Light Microscopy, IR and In very many cases and situations, individualization of the
Visible Spectrophotometry, evidence is the desired goal. Instrumental methods of analy-
Microspectrophotometry (UV, sis which have individualization as their objective must be
VIS, IR)
capable of detecting differences in samples of the same ma-
terial which are often exceedingly minute. As a result, bulk
chemical analysis techniques have not proven very success-
ful for individualizations, particularly with small samples.
ble to instrumental analysis and match them with the appli- Better results have been obtained with methods that mea-
cable instrumental methods (see Table 2). Alternatively, one sure the distribution of components, compounds, or ele-
might first try to classify the different types of instrumental ments along with the nature and quantity of them.
methods and indicate next to them the types of physical Many forensic analyses involve the comparison of a known
evidence for which they might serve as useful analytical tools (or exemplar) sample with an unknown (or questioned) one.
(see Table 3). Useful comparisons of complex samples are possible using
instrumental methods even when the procedure does not
Analytical Methods allow the examiner to discover the actual composition of the
Most analytical methods having identification of a sub- samples. Examples of such comparisons are the comparison
stance as their objective are comparatively straightforward. of two paint samples by IR and the comparison of two com-
There are identification problems in which combinations of plex automotive engine oils by spectrophotofluorometry.
instrumental analyses have made possible more definitive Generally speaking, the ability to individualize a sample
results. The identification of gunshot residue particles pro- of physical evidence would provide much more conclusive
vides an example. Samples that are examined by elemental information about a case. At the present time, most com-
analysis techniques (AA, NAA, etc) and found to contain parisons involving instrumental methods lead to one of two
appropriate levels of antimony, barium, and lead are consis- conclusions. Either the samples do not match and are thus
tent in elemental composition with gunshot residue. While demonstrated to be different, or they do match and are then
this information alone does not prove the sample’s identity, said to be “similar” or “consistent with having shared a
using a combination of SEM, which enables the gunshot common origin.”
residue particles to be visualized, and X-ray elemental anal-
Advances
ysis, which can show that the particles have the appropriate
elemental composition, makes the identification virtually The future undoubtedly holds the key to more well-de-
certain. fined identifications and better individualization of many

Volume 62 Number 12 December 1985 1059

types of physical evidence. Achievement of this goal would
make the information supplied by forensic scientists more
useful and would assist in arriving at more precise recon-
structions of events in cases. Instrumental methods of analy-
sis will certainly play a major role in the progress that is
made.3 Approaches that yield information about the distri-
bution of components of a sample as well as about their
nature offer one avenue of future research.
The individualization of some types of evidence is made
difficult by the fact that the variation of some property
within a single sample may be as great or greater than the
variation between two different samples. Methods and
methodologies must, therefore, be sought that can exploit
variations in composition or distribution of components that
are greater between similar specimens than within them.
Another approach that may be explored is the use of
1060 Journal of Chemical Education
combinations of instrumental methods for comparisons of
questioned and known samples. In this way, specimens can
be compared with respect to a number of different proper-
ties, making the probability of common origin greater when
no differences are detected.
Advances in the analysis of materials in the forensic sci-
ence laboratory tend to parallel advances in other areas of
chemistry. The fact that the samples found in the forensic
laboratory are usually small has led to techniques that are
nondestructive and require only small amounts of sample.
Modern instruments provide great utility in this regard,
leading to the promise of continued advances.
3
Williams, R. L., Anal. Chem., 45, 1076A (1973).