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Social Anthropology is a branch of sociology. It always describes human, human behavior and
human societies around the world. It is a comparative science that examines all societies. The
term anthropology comes from Latin world ‘anthrop’ means man or human and ‘logos’ means
science or study. So, the term anthropology means scientific study of man or human beings.
Meaning of Social Anthropology:
The term “Anthropology” is derived from two Greek words, anthropos meaning human
and logos meaning study. So, in the simplest terms, Anthropology is the study of human beings.
An anthropologist tries to study and understand everything that can be related to humans and not
limited by time and space.
Definition of Anthropology:
Anthropologists have defined anthropology in many ways. Some of them are given below.
“Anthropology the study of human kind everywhere, throughout time, seeks to produce useful
generations about people and their behavior and to arrive at the fullest possible understanding of
human diversity” (Havilland, W. A.1975).
“Anthropology is the study of people and all the things they do, think, say and make" (Gwynne
and Hicks, 1994).
“Anthropology is the study of human beings, divided into the branches of biologically oriented,
physical anthropology and social oriented, social anthropology” (Jary and Jary, 2005).
1. The concise oxford dictionary: study of mankind especially of its societies and customs;
study of structure and evolution of man as an animal”.
2. Kroeber: “Anthropology is the science of groups of men and their behavior and
production”.
3. Herskovits: “Anthropology may be defined as the measurement of human beings.”
4. Jocobs and Stern: “Anthropology is the scientific study of the physical, social and
cultural development and behavior of human beings since their appearance on this earth.”
C) Archaeology:
The study of material remains usually from the past to describe and explain human behavior.
Archaeologists use the material evidence of the past. They study potsherds, tools, the ruins of
buildings, animal bones, and many other types of objects to learn how people lived in the past.
Archaeologists study both prehistoric cultures (those who left behind no written records) and
historic ones too. The patterns of the archaeological record are used to explore topics such as the
emergence of agriculture, the evolution of technology, the appearance of complex societies, and
how societies change over long periods of time.
D) Linguistic Anthropology:
Linguistic anthropology is the study of languages, ancient and modern written form, talking style
etc. Linguistic anthropologists study the social and cultural contexts of language and how they
vary. They can seek to reconstruct vanished languages, study the fundamental processes of
language and how it evolves, how it is related to patterns of thought and meaning in different
cultures, and how and why social variation relates to the way’s language is produced and used.
E) Ethnology:
The systematic description of a cultural based on first hand observation. Ethnology is the study
of the characteristics of different people. This can be considered as a subfield of anthropology. In
ethnology, the individual pays attention to the specific characteristics of a group of people such
as an ethnic group in terms of social, cultural elements. These characteristics are then studied in
depth. The ethnologist attempts to study various unique features of the group such as origins,
social structure, political structure, economy, religion, language and even on members. From the
list of elements, it is clear that the study of ethnology is mostly focused on culture and the
changes that have come about in different groups of people.
The various areas of concern for establishing an egalitarian society are communism, legal
egalitarianism, gender equality, political equality, racial equality, etc. every person residing
within the society must be treated equally, should be provided with equal opportunities, rights,
freedom, justice, and so on. Every individual, whether man or a woman must be equal in their
rights and duties. People belonging to all the religions should also be treated equally even if that
religion engulfs only a minority section of people. Many egalitarian theories have also developed
at the cultural level including socialism, libertarian socialism, progressivism, economic
egalitarianism, etc. The opposition to egalitarianism is referred to as Anti-egalitarianism.
Egalitarian societies are those in which little or no formal structure exists that places authority
and power into the hands of certain individuals or groups on the basis of hereditary right or
positions of authority. Indeed, in egalitarian societies there are no positions of authority. Every
man, and in some society’s woman, has an equal say in matters concerning the group and
participates fully in decision making. No person can exert authority over another, and there are
no avenues for individuals to acquire privileged positions that might provide them with unequal
power over others. The existence of egalitarian societies might suggest that relations between all
members of the society are based upon equality. However, one must take a closer look at the
realities. There are extremely few societies where all members—men, women, and children—
have an equal say in decisions made on behalf of the group. The majority of egalitarian societies
maintain inequitable relations between certain classes of its members. Even in those societies of
the Kalahari Desert and Australia where equality between individuals is most apparent, women
and the uninitiated have an inequitable part to play in matters concerning marriage, for example.
When anthropologists talk about egalitarian societies, they are generally referring to the relations
between men.
Ranked Societies
Rank Societies:
Rank societies are characterized by inequality in access to recognized prestige statuses although
equality in access to resources may obtain. Ranking is most apparent in the political or power
domain. The highest in rank is the chief of the society. The position of the chief can be attained
only by being his genealogical heir. The chief is the principal organizer and director of all
activities within his community. The superior ranking in the social sphere is expressed in the
chief elaborate regalia including clothing and ornamentation. A chief is addressed with
extravagant titles and is treated with respect. Those of the inferior ranking are dressed in simple
clothing. They are even required to kneel before the chief while talking to him. According to
their relationship to the chief the other members of the society are ranked in descendent order. In
rank societies equal access to economic resources obtains. The role of the chief is mainly that of
a redistributor. Although he may be designated as the owner of all communal property, his status
is above all others because of his generosity or in the magnanimous act of giving away wealth
rather than keeping it to self.
Rank commonly refers to the social position of people in societies recognizing social hierarchies
of one kind or another. These societies are organized according to principles determining the
relative value of certain groups or individuals over others. This often has implications for
people’s relative access to resources, opportunity, positions of power, and authority within the
political or religious sectors. While all societies have some level of status differential where age,
gender, and other individual characteristics are markers of relative value, those societies
recognizing hereditary rank have more formalized means of attributing value, affording
individuals with relative status.
In egalitarian societies, goods and services are spread relatively evenly among the population.
High-ranking individuals in a community can be identified archaeologically by studying
human burials, where differences in grave contents, the health of an individual or his or her diet
can be examined. Ranking can also be established by the difference sizes of houses, the locations
within a community, or the distribution of luxury or status items within a community.