Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Summer Industrial
Training Report On
CONSTRUCTION OF CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT
At
BIHAR STATE ROAD DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION
Bachelor of Engineering
CIVIL ENGINEERING
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
4 TYPES OF PAVEMENTS 6
6 MINERALS USED 8
7 CEMENT 9
8 SAND 10
9 AGGREGATE 10
10 PROPORTIONING 12
16 EXECUTION OF JOINTS 17
17 CURING 19
19 SPECIAL MEASURES 20
20 OPENING TO TRAFFIC 21
22 CONCLUSION 26
BIHAR STATE ROAD DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION:
AN OVERVIEW
INTRODUCTION
Development of a country depends on the connectivity of various places with adequate road
network. Roads are the major channel of transportation for carrying goods and passengers.
They play a significant role in improving the socio-economic standards of a region. Roads
constitute the most important mode of communication in areas where railways have not
developed much and form the basic infra-structure for the development and economic growth
of the country. The benefits from the investment in road sector are indirect, long-term and not
immediately visible. Roads are important assets for any nation. However, merely creating
these assets is not enough, it has to be planned carefully and a pavement which is not
designed properly deteriorates fast. India is a large country having huge resource of materials.
If these local materials are used properly, the cost of construction can be reduced. There are
various type of pavements which differ in their suitability in different environments. Each
type of pavement has its own merits and demerits. Despite a large number of seminars and
conference, still in India, 98% roads are having flexible pavements. A lot of research has
been made on use of Waste materials but the role of these materials is still limited. So there is
need to take a holistic approach and mark the areas where these are most suitable.
India has one of the largest road networks in the world (over 3 million km at present).For the
purpose of management and administration, roads in India are divided into the following five
categories:
National Highways (NH)
State Highways (SH)
Major District Roads (MDR)
Other District Roads (ODR)
Village Roads (VR)
The National Highways are intended to facilitate medium and long distance inter-city
passenger and freight traffic across the country. The State Highways are supposed to carry
the traffic along major centres within the State. Other District Roads and Village Roads
provide villages accessibility to meet their social needs as also the means to transport
agriculture produce from village to nearby markets. Major District Roads provide the
secondary function of linkage between main roads and rural roads.
Point of view geographic and population of the state is the nation's fifth largest state. State
Industrial, economic and social development of the state and the population of each village is
absolutely necessary to re-connect to the main roads. In addition to state important national
roads, state roads and district roads and their proper broad be made to improve the quality of
traffic point of view is of particular importance. Bihar State Road Development Corporation
to build roads and improve connectivity in rural zones, Other District Road and State broad
and improvement of rural roads and main routes narrow construction of zones and depleted
bridges and brides reconstruction of the bases are transacted on a priority basis. Also under
Pradhanmantri Gram Sadak Yojana and pre-fabricated construction of rural roads linking the
work of other district roads broad Kilometres the scale bases are edited.
Successful operation of various schemes for the Bihar State Road Development Corporation
engineers and supervisory boards in different districts of the engineer‟s office has been
settled. Activities by planning, execution, and quality control etc. remove impediments find
joy in relation to the supervision over the activities are focused. Various schemes operated by
the Department of the Office of the Regional Chief Engineers and Chief Engineers office.
\
WHAT IS ROAD OR PAVEMENT?
Pavement or Road is an open, generally public way for the passage of vehicles, people, and
animals.
Pavement is finished with a hard smooth surface. It helped make them durable and able to
withstand traffic and the environment. They have a life span of between 20 – 30 years.
Road pavements deteriorate over time due to-
PURPOSE
Many people rely on paved roads to move themselves and their products rapidly and reliably.
FUNCTIONS
One of the primary functions is load distribution. It can be characterized by the tire loads,
tire configurations, repetition of loads, and distribution of traffic across the pavement, and
vehicle speed.
Pavement material and geometric design can affect quick and efficient drainage. These
eliminating moisture problems such as mud and pounding (puddles). Drainage system
consists of:
Surface drainage: Removing all water present on the pavement surface, sloping, chambers,
and kerbs.
Subsurface drainage: Removing water that seep into or is contained in the underlying sub-
grade.
TYPES OF PAVEMENTS
There are various types of pavements depending upon the materials used; a briefs description
of all types is given here-
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
Bitumen has been widely used in the construction of flexible pavements for a long time. This
is the most convenient and simple type of construction. The cost of construction of single
lane bituminous pavement varies from 20 to 30 lakhs per km in plain areas. In some
applications, however, the performance of conventional bitumen may not be considered
satisfactory because of the following reasons
In summer season, due to high temperature, bitumen becomes soft resulting in
bleeding, rutting and segregation finally leading to failure of pavement.
In winter season, due to low temperature, the bitumen becomes brittle resulting in
cracking, ravelling and unevenness which makes the pavement unsuitable for use.
In rainy season, water enters the pavement resulting into pot holes and sometimes total
removal of bituminous layer.
In hilly areas, due to sub-zero temperature, the freeze thaw and heave cycle takes
place. Due to freezing and melting of ice in bituminous voids, volume expansion and
contraction occur. This leads to pavements failure.
The cost of bitumen has been rising continuously. In near future, there will be scarcity
of bitumen and it will be impossible to procure bitumen at very high costs.
RIGID PAVEMENTS
Rigid pavements, though costly in initial investment, are cheap in long run because of low
maintenance costs. There are various merits in the use of Rigid pavements (Concrete
pavements) are summarized below:
Bitumen is derived from petroleum crude, which is in short supply globally and the
price of which has been rising steeply. India imports nearly 70% of the petroleum
crude. The demand for bitumen in the coming years is likely to grow steeply, far
outstripping the availability. Hence it will be in India's interest to explore alternative
binders. Cement is available in sufficient quantity in India, and its availability in the
future is also assured. Thus cement concrete roads should be the obvious choice in
future road programmes.
Besides the easy available of cement, concrete roads have a long life and are
practically maintenance-free.
Another major advantage of concrete roads is the savings in fuel by commercial
vehicles to an extent of 14-20%. The fuel savings themselves can support a large
programme of concreting.
Cement concrete roads save a substantial quantity of stone aggregates and this factor
must be considered when a choice pavements is made,
Concrete roads can withstand extreme weather conditions – wide ranging
temperatures, heavy rainfall and water logging.
Though cement concrete roads may cost slightly more than a flexible pavement
initially, they are economical when whole-life-costing is considered.
Reduction in the cost of concrete pavements can be brought about by developing semi-
self-compacting concrete techniques and the use of closely spaced thin joints. R&D
efforts should be initiated in this area.
2. REINFORCED CONCRETE
Continuously reinforced concrete
Continuously reinforced concrete pavements are characterised by the absence of transverse
joints and are equipped with longitudinal steel reinforcement. The diameter of the reinforcing
bars is calculated in such a way that cracking can be controlled and that the cracks are
uniformly distributed (spacing at 1 to 3 m). The crack width has to remain very small, i.e. less
than 0.3 mm.
MINERALS USED
Concrete is widely used in domestic, commercial, recreational, rural and educational
construction.
Communities around the world rely on concrete as a safe, strong and simple building
material. It is used in all types of construction; from domestic work to multi-storey office
blocks and shopping complexes.
Despite the common usage of concrete, few people are aware of the considerations involved
in designing strong, durable, high quality concrete.
There are mainly three materials used primarily-
Cement
Sand
Aggregate
CEMENT
Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can bind other
materials together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the
term caementicium to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from
crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives that
were added to the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cementum,
cimentum, cement, and cement.
Cements used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or non-
hydraulic. Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) harden because of hydration, a
chemical reaction between the anhydrous cement powder and water. Thus, they can harden
underwater or when constantly exposed to wet weather. The chemical reaction results in
hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water. Non-hydraulic
cements do not harden underwater; for example, slaked limes harden by reaction with
atmospheric carbon dioxide.
The most important uses of cement are as an ingredient in the production of mortar in
masonry, and of concrete, a combination of cement and an aggregate to form a strong
building material.
TYPES OF CEMENT:-
Portland cement
Portland cement is by far the most common type of cement in general use around the world.
This cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small quantities of other
materials (such as clay) to 1450 °C in a kiln, in a process known as calcinations, whereby a
molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or
quicklime, which is then blended with the other materials that have been included in the mix.
The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount
of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement', the most commonly used type
of cement (often referred to as OPC). Portland cement is a basic ingredient
of concrete, mortar and most non-specialty grout. The most common use for Portland cement
is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting
of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a construction material, concrete can
be cast in almost any shape desired, and once hardened, can become a structural (load
bearing) element. Portland cement may be grey or white.
Portland fly ash cement
It contains up to 35% flyash. The fly ash is pozzolanic, so that ultimate strength is
maintained. Because fly ash addition allows lower concrete water content, early strength can
also be maintained. Where good quality cheap fly ash is available, this can be an economic
alternative to ordinary Portland cement.
SAND
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral
particles. The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources and
conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-
tropical coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.
The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate, for example aragonite, which
has mostly been created, over the past half billion years, by various forms of life,
like coral and shellfish. It is, for example, the primary form of sand apparent in areas where
reefs have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean.
AGGREGATE
Aggregates are inert granular materials such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone that, along with
water and Portland cement, are an essential ingredient in concrete. For a good concrete mix,
aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of absorbed chemicals or coatings of
clay and other fine materials that could cause the deterioration of concrete. Aggregates,
which account for 60 to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete, are divided into two
distinct categories-fine and coarse. Fine aggregates generally consist of natural sand or
crushed stone with most particles passing through a 3/8-inch (9.5-mm) sieve. Coarse
aggregates are any particles greater than 0.19 inch (4.75 mm), but generally range between
3/8 and 1.5 inches (9.5 mm to 37.5 mm) in diameter. Gravels constitute the majority of coarse
aggregate used in concrete with crushed stone making up most of the remainder.
Natural gravel and sand are usually dug or dredged from a pit, river, lake, or seabed. Crushed
aggregate is produced by crushing quarry rock, boulders, cobbles, or large-size
gravel. Recycled concrete is a viable source of aggregate and has been satisfactorily used in
granular sub bases, soil-cement, and in new concrete. Aggregate processing consists of
crushing, screening, and washing the aggregate to obtain proper cleanliness and gradation. If
necessary, a benefaction process such as jigging or heavy media separation can be used to
upgrade the quality.
Once processed, the aggregates are handled and stored in a way that minimizes segregation
and degradation and prevents contamination. Aggregates strongly influence concrete's freshly
mixed and hardened properties, mixture proportions, and economy. Consequently, selection
of aggregates is an important process. Although some variation in aggregate properties is
expected, characteristics that are considered when selecting aggregate include:
grading
durability
particle shape and surface texture
abrasion and skid resistance
unit weights and voids
absorption and surface moisture
Grading refers to the determination of the particle-size distribution for aggregate. Grading
limits and maximum aggregate size are specified because grading and size affect the amount
of aggregate used as well as cement and water requirements, workability.
FINE AGGREGATE:
Fine aggregate shall consist of sand, or sand stone with similar characteristics, or
combination thereof. It shall meet requirements of the State Department of Transportation of
Bihar , Section 501.3.6.3 of the Standard Specifications for Highway and Structure
Construction, current edition.
COARSE AGGREGATE:
Coarse aggregate shall consist of clean, hard, durable gravel, crushed gravel, crushed
boulders, or crushed stone. It shall meet the requirements of the State Department of
Transportation of Bihar , Section 501.3.6.4 of the Standard Specifications for Highway and
Structure Construction, current edition.
PROPORTIONING:
The following table sets forth the master limits of the job mix for the several grades of
concrete, and designates the quantities of materials and relative proportions for each grade of
concrete. For Air-Entrained High-Early-Strength Concrete, as required or permitted when
High-Early-Strength Cement is used, the proportions shall be as given in the table.
The quantities of aggregates set forth in the tabulations are for oven dry materials having a
bulk specific gravity of 2.65. For aggregates having a different specific gravity, the weights
shall be adjusted in the ratio that the specific gravity of the material used bears to 2.65 .
It must always be avoided that water is sucked from the cement paste into the substructure or
the base. This can be accomplished by either moderately moistening the sub grade, or by
applying a plastic sheet on the substructure of the pavement. The latter work must be done
with care, to prevent the sheet from tearing or being pulled loose by the wind.
sufficient bearing capacity, so that the slip form paver can proceed without causing
deformations;
good skid resistance to prevent the tracks from slipping, especially when paving on a
slope;
good evenness to avoid that the self-levelling systems have to compensate for
excessive differences in height. The track runway is a determining factor for the
steering and consequently its surface has to at least as smooth as the concrete paving
surface itself. The runway surface has to be permanently cleaned prior to the passage
of the tracks.
The track runway has to be wide enough taking into account:
the greatest width of the paving machine plus an extra width (especially on
embankments);
the necessary space for placing the sensor lines.
EXECUTION
The supply of the concrete has to be arranged in such a way that a continuous placement can
be guaranteed without detrimental interruptions as each standstill can cause unevenness's.
This implies a sufficient capacity of the concrete mixing plant and of the means of
transportation of the concrete.
The concrete is discharged:
either directly in front of the machine, using dump trucks. The concrete must be
discharged gradually, in order to limit the drop height. A crane is often necessary,
especially for larger working widths, in order to adequately spread the concrete mix;
or in the bin of a side feeder, for example if transport by dump trucks on the
foundation is impossible because of the presence of dowel chairs or reinforcement
steel;
or in a supply container, from which the concrete is scooped with a crane.
It cannot be overemphasised that properly spreading the concrete in front of the slip form
paving machine is very important for the final quality of the work, especially with regard to
the smoothness. It is of great importance that in front of the slip form paver, a constant and
sufficient amount of concrete is available at all times so that a continuous paving process can
be guaranteed. The paver should never be used to push the concrete forward.
For large casting widths the concrete is preferably spread either by means of a placer/spreader
machine that operates in front of the paver or, by the slip form paver itself (side feeder,
spreading augers, wagon,…). The use of a placer/spreader, allows the slip form paver to
proceed more steadily. The distance between the placer/spreader and the slip form machine
has to be kept small enough to limit changes in the water content of the concrete mix.
The paving rate has to match the concrete delivery rate, but the consistency of the concrete
and the evenness of the track runways must also be taken into consideration. In practice, the
optimum speed of the paving machine lies between 0.75 and 1 m/min. A steady progress of
the paving operations without detrimental interruptions guarantees quality, whatever type of
machine is used.
All regulating devices of the paving machine have to be tuned before any paving is started.
However, this regulation should also be monitored during the entire course of the paving
process and adjusted if necessary, so that the concrete pavement is executed correctly:
thickness, flawless edges, surface smoothness.
Some machines are equipped with a dowel bar inserter or an anchor bar (also called tie-bar)
inserter. Dowel bars are inserted in the fresh concrete down to the correct elevation after the
vibrator but before the tamper bar. The dowel bar inserter preferably operates in a continuous
operation. Every precaution must be taken to place the dowels correctly and not to disrupt the
evenness of the concrete surface (composition of the concrete, paving speed, etc.).
The use of a 'super smoother' (longitudinal floating tool) is highly recommended and in some
specifications it is even made compulsory whenever a slip form paver is used and especially
for pavements for high speed roads. The super smoother is a beam float suspended from the
backside of the slip form machine and that moves back and forth in the longitudinal direction
while simultaneously traversing the freshly finished concrete surface. It allows to eliminate
small finishing errors or any remaining high and low spots behind the slip form paver. This
improves the driving comfort and limits the nuisance caused by unevenness's with a short
wave length (noise, vibrations). Small traces of cement slurry produced after the passage of
the super smoother, are subsequently removed by dragging a section of burlap or a drag plate.
The super smoother can also be used for other road categories, including bicycle paths.
a concrete mix with an uniform consistency, adapted to the paving machines and the
working circumstances,
a regular supply of concrete and a uniform spreading in front of the paver,
correct operation of the paving machines, which in turn depends on the setting of the
forms or the sensor lines, the quality of the track runways, the regulation of the
sensors, etc.,
steady progress of the paver, without interruptions and with a speed compatible with
the consistency of the concrete and the working circumstances,
use of specific tools or equipment to eliminate small bumps after the paving machines:
correction beam, super smoother, etc.
EXECUTION OF JOINTS
All the equipment that is necessary to make joints in the fresh or hardened concrete must be
present at the construction site.
The saw blades have to be suitable to the quality of the concrete, i.e. to the hardness and the
abrasion resistance of the aggregates. It is useful to have spare equipment available in case of
a defect.
The beam for making a construction joint shall be rigid and shall allow the realization of a
straight joint perpendicular to the axis of the road. This beam has to be adapted to the type of
pavement (jointed pavement, continuously reinforced concrete pavement).
TRANSVERSE JOINTS
1. CONTRACTION JOINTS
Crack onsets are executed to avoid uncontrolled (“wild”) cracking of the concrete by
shrinkage. Contraction joints have a crack onset which extends to a depth of one third of the
slab thickness and can be equipped with dowels.
On main roads, the contraction joints are usually made by sawing. The saw cutting should
occur as soon as possible, usually between 5 and 24 hours after placement of the concrete. It
is obvious that the concrete should have hardened sufficiently in order to prevent the edges of
the joint from being damaged. In case of high temperatures, special equipment is available to
execute saw cutting within 3 hours subsequent to the placement of the concrete. In that case,
light equipment is used to make saw cuts of about 2.5 cm deep. Every saw cut that has not
instigated a crack within 24 hours is deepened up to 1/3 of the slab thickness.
Making crack onsets for contraction joints in the fresh concrete is a technique that is
practically no longer applied except for country roads or municipal roads whenever the traffic
intensity and evenness requirements permit so.
To make such a joint, a thin steel blade (no more than 6 mm thick) is vibrated into the fresh
concrete to a depth of 1/3 of the slab thickness.
The joint can be made both with flexible and with rigid joint strips. In the first method, a thin
plastic strip twice as wide as the depth of the crack point plus 2 cm is laid on the fresh
concrete. The steel blade is positioned in the middle of the strip and is subsequently vibrated
into the fresh concrete. In the second method the rigid joint strip is inserted into a groove
priory made by vibrating the steel blade in the concrete. The top of the strip must be flush
with the pavement surface.
After having made the crack onset, the concrete surface along the joint should be smoothened
again. However, manual corrections should be kept to a minimum as much as possible, since
they can cause spalling of the joint edges later.
2. EXPANSION JOINTS
Expansion joints are only used exceptionally. In these rare cases, they have to meet the
necessary requirements so as not to cause difficulties later.
The execution of expansion joints requires special attention when using slip form paving
machines.
Special attention shall be paid to the following:
the wooden joint filler board shall be firmly attached to the base by means of metal
stakes, so that it cannot move while the concrete is being placed;
the height of the joint filler board shall be slightly(2 to 3 cm) shallower than the
thickness of the concrete slab, in order not to hinder the placement of the concrete. As
soon as the slip form paving machine has passed, the concrete above the joint filler
board shall be removed over a width at least equal to the thickness of the board, so
that no “concrete arch” is made at the top of the joint;
expansion joints shall always be provided with dowels, even for roads with less
intense traffic. At one end of each dowel a cap filled with a compressible material
accommodates the movements of the concrete.
3. CONSTRUCTION JOINTS
Construction joints also called end-of-day or working joints - are made at the end of the daily
production or when the paving process is interrupted for at least 2 hours. The face of these
joints is plane, vertical and perpendicular to the axis of the pavement. They are always
doweled.
Upon resuming the paving the fresh concrete is placed against the concrete that has already
hardened. The concrete is consolidated on both sides of the joint with a separate manual
needle vibrator.
LONGITUDINAL JOINTS
Longitudinal joints run parallel to the axis of the road and are only necessary if the pavement
is wider than 4.5m. They can be provided with tie bars.
SPECIAL MEASURES
WORKABILITY PERIOD
It must always be ensured that the concrete is processed as quickly as possible, certainly
within 2 hours after batching including the surface treatment and the protection measures. In
hot, dry weather an even shorter workability time has to be observed (maximum 90 minutes).
Unless special precautions are taken that have been approved by the manager of the works,
concrete can only be laid if the air temperature at 1.5 m above ground under thermometer
shelter does not exceed 25°c.
Furthermore, all necessary measures shall be taken to keep the water content of the concrete
as constant as possible from the time of batching until completion of the placement.
PAVING INTERRUPTIONS
Whenever the supply of concrete is interrupted, the driver of the paving machine shall
immediately take the necessary measures to lower the speed of the paving train and to ensure
that the machine stops as little as possible.
For a short interruption, the machine should be stopped before the deposited concrete in the
vibrating chamber has dropped to such a level that the vibrators become visible. If the supply
is interrupted for more than 60 minutes (45 min. in hot weather), a construction joint has to
be made.
Upon a long-lasting defect of the paving equipment, the supply of fresh concrete has to be
stopped immediately and an attempt must be made to complete the current paving phase. If
the circumstances and the elapsed workability time no longer make a proper completion
possible, the concrete, that has been deposited but not yet finished, has to be removed.
To achieve a continuous profile, particular care is taken of the execution of the construction
joints, both at the end of the day and every time work is resumed. The concrete is compacted
preferably with a separate vibrating needle before the paving machine is passing in order to
obtain properly compacted concrete on both sides of the joint.
OPENING TO TRAFFIC
Usually, a concrete pavement is only opened to traffic 7 days after the concrete has been laid
and after, in the presence of all parties, any possible cracks have been recorded. A concrete
pavement of less than 7 days old, can be opened to traffic if the contractor provides proof that
the concrete has reached the minimum compressive strength stipulated in the specifications.
Presently, special compositions of the concrete mix allow an early opening to traffic, i.e.
between 24 and 48 hours after placement. These mixes are used, for example, for pavement
repair works to reduce the nuisance to the public as much as possible.
It is pointless to talk about quality if not all employees, each at his own level, make a special
effort to understand the rules of good practice, upgrade their know-how and act accordingly.
MAINTENANCE COST
The maintenance cost includes the maintenance of pavement during the design life of
pavement to keep the pavement at the specified service level.
In case of rural roads, maintenance of these roads is to be done by the respective state
government from its available financial resources. most of the states have poor past
performance record to maintain such low volume roads through other schemes, mainly
because of having inadequate funds for maintenance of road infrastructure in the state.