Nuclear Reactor Physics

Topic 1: Basic notions of nuclear (reactor) physics

Wei WANG
wwang326@cityu.edu.hk

1
Topics
o Basic notions of nuclear (reactor) physics
▪ Basic neutron nucleus reactions in the reactor;
▪ Nuclear quantities used in reactor physics, cross section, reaction rate, etc.
▪ Cross section varying with energy.
Compound nucleus
A 1 𝐴+1 ∗ residual
ZX + 0n → 𝑍𝑋 → particle +
nucleus
probability of
nuclear reaction
Cross section (barns)

resonance
peaks

1/v fast
region neutrons

Neutron energy (eV)

2
Neutron Nucleus Reactions

3
Neutron
o Mass: 1.67495 × 10−27 Kg, a slightly larger than the mass of proton;
o Charge: 0 (electrically neutral, unstable except when it is bound into an atomic
nucleus);
o Half-life period: 𝜏1Τ2 = 𝜏 ∙ ln 2 ≈ 10.3min (not considered in thermal neutron
reactor because transient neutron lifetime is equal to 10−3 ~10−4 𝑠 ≪ 𝜏1Τ2 );
o Classification:
Type Fast Intermediate Thermal

Energy zone E>0.1MeV 1eV<E<0.1MeV E<1eV

4
Neutron Interactions
o Neutrons can pass through the atomic electron cloud and interact directly with
the nucleus (i.e., neutrons collide with nuclei, not with atoms).

collision
neutron 𝟏𝒏
𝟎

electron cloud
𝑨𝑿 nucleus (protons and neutrons)
𝒁

▪ Formation of a compound nucleus;

▪ Potential scattering;
▪ Direct interaction.

5
Formation of Compound Nucleus
o In compound-nucleus formation, the incident neutron is absorbed by the target
nucleus and a compound nucleus is form.
collision &
absorption formation
𝟏𝒏
𝟎
[A+1𝑿𝒁]*

𝑨𝑿
𝒁 energy levels

incident neutron 𝟏𝒏𝟎 [A+1𝑿𝒁]* is in a highly

▪ neutron kinetic energy 𝐸𝑐 unstable excited energy
𝐸𝑐 level with the energy of
target nucleus 𝑨𝑿𝒁 excitation equal to 𝐸𝑐 +
▪ ground state; 𝐸𝑏 .
▪ if no kinetic energy.
binding energy 𝐸𝑏 𝛾 cascade

compound nucleus [A+1𝑿𝒁]* de-excitation

▪ ground state. 6
De-excitation of Compound Nucleus
o The compound nucleus is highly unstable in an excited state, thus, the de-
excitation occurs by particle and/or photon emission.
compound nucleus

𝟏𝒏 residual
𝟎 + 𝑨𝑿𝒁 → [A+1𝑿𝒁]* → particle +
nucleus

o Scattering:
▪ Elastic scattering 𝑛, 𝑛 ;
▪ Inelastic scattering 𝑛, 𝑛′ ;
o Absorption:
▪ Radiative capture 𝑛, 𝛾 ;
▪ Transmutation 𝑛, 𝑝 , 𝑛, 𝛼 ;
▪ Fission 𝑛, 𝑓 .

7
Scattering
o The compound nucleus de-excite by re-emitting a neutron.
o Resonance elastic scattering 𝒏, 𝒏 :
1𝑛
0 + 𝐴𝑋𝑍 → [A+1𝑋𝑍]* → 1𝑛0 + 𝐴𝑋𝑍

𝑨𝑿 ground state
𝒁

𝟏𝒏
𝟎
𝟏𝒏
𝟎
𝑨𝑿
𝒁 [A+1𝑿 𝒁]*

▪ Occurrence in all the neutron regions;

Topic 3

▪ Perfect elastic collision, thus conservation of kinetic energy and of

momentum;
▪ Major process of neutron slowing down in light medium in thermal reactor.

8
Scattering
o The compound nucleus de-excite by re-emitting a neutron.
o Inelastic scattering 𝒏, 𝒏′ :
1𝑛
0 + 𝐴𝑋𝑍 → [A+1𝑋𝑍]* → 1𝑛0 + 𝐴𝑋𝑍 + 𝛾

delayed 
prompt 

excited state 𝑨𝑿
𝒁
𝟏𝒏
𝟎
𝟏𝒏
𝟎
𝑨𝑿
𝒁 [A+1𝑿𝒁]*
ground state

▪ 𝑛, 𝑛′ takes effects only in neutron kinetic energy larger than the first
excitation energy of a target nucleus (i.e., threshold energy);
▪ For example, 238U first excited state energy = 45keV, 𝑛, 𝑛′ occurs in fast
reactor.
9
Absorption
o Radiative capture 𝒏, 𝜸 : the compound nucleus de-excites to the ground state
of the nucleus A+1𝑋𝑍 by emitting one or more 𝛾 rays.
1𝑛
0 + 𝐴𝑋𝑍 → [A+1𝑋𝑍]* → A+1𝑋
𝑍 +𝛾

prompt 
radiation

𝟏𝒏
𝟎
𝑨𝑿
𝒁 [A+1𝑿𝒁]* A+1𝑿
𝒁

▪ 𝑛, 𝛾 can occur in all the neutron energy zones, but the interaction of
thermal neutron with intermediate/heavy nucleus is easier;

10
Absorption
o Radiative capture 𝒏, 𝜸 : the compound nucleus de-excites to the ground state
of the nuclide A+1𝑋𝑍 by emitting one or more 𝛾 rays.
1𝑛
0 + 𝐴𝑋𝑍 → [A+1𝑋𝑍]* → A+1𝑋
𝑍 +𝛾

prompt 
radiation
𝛽

radioactive
decay A+1X
Z±1

𝟏𝒏
𝟎
𝑨𝑿
𝒁 [A+1𝑿𝒁]* A+1𝑿
𝒁

[A+1XZ±1]* decay 
radiation
▪ Radioactivity exists in A+1𝑋𝑍 after capture a neutron, which makes it
difficult in equipment maintenance, waste disposal and physical protection;
▪ Generation of fissile material 239
94Pu in reactors:
β decay β decay
238 1 239 239 239
92U + 0n → 92U +γ 93Np 94Pu 11
Absorption
o Transmutation 𝒏, 𝒑 : the change of 𝐴𝑋𝑍 into 𝐴𝑌𝑍−1 by emitting a 1H1 .
1𝑛
0 + 𝐴𝑋𝑍 → [A+1𝑋𝑍]* → 𝐴𝑌𝑍−1 + 1𝐻1

▪ 𝑛, 𝑝 can occur in reactor coolant and moderator, e.g., H2 O, D2 O:

16
8O + 10n → 16 1
7N + 1p
𝛾 decay

𝛾 rays with high energy:

o 7.12MeV (5%);
o 6.13MeV (69%);
o 2.75MeV (1%).

▪ Sources of radioactivity in H2 O or D2 O cooled reactors;

16
▪ 7N half-life
period is 7.13s, thus, it does not impair the inspection/
maintenance and the environment.

12
Absorption
o Transmutation 𝒏, 𝜶 : the change of 𝐴𝑋𝑍 into A-3𝑌𝑍−2 by emitting a 4He2 .
1𝑛
0 + 𝐴𝑋𝑍 → [A+1𝑋𝑍]* → A-3𝑌𝑍−2 + 4He2

▪ 𝑛, 𝛼 can occur by thermal neutron interacting with boron 105B:

10
5B + 10n → 73Li + 42He

▪ Large absorption cross section in thermal region (1/v

region);
▪ Reactivity control: good material to control the fission
reactions in thermal reactors. Topic 7

13
 Absorption
o Fission 𝒏, 𝒇 : the most important nucleus reaction in the reactor, it is that a
nucleus of a heavy atom (235𝑈92) absorbs a neutron, the nucleus can become
unstable and split into two fragments of roughly equal mass.
o The fission process often produces free neutrons and photons (in the form of
gamma rays), and releases a large amount of energy.
235 A1 A2
92U + 10n → 236 ∗
92U → Z1 X + Z2 Y + 𝜈 10n ~200MeV energy
▪ Fissile isotopes: 233U, 235U, 239Pu,
241Pu, fission with neutrons of all (unstable) fission
energy regions, but most probable fissionable fragment
with thermal neutrons; isotope
▪ Fissionable isotopes: 232Th, 238U, 𝑨𝟏
240Pu, fission only when neutron 𝒁𝟏 𝑿

energy is higher than a threshold.

𝝂 𝟏𝟎𝐧
𝟏𝒏
𝟎
𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝐔 [ 𝟐𝟑𝟔
𝟗𝟐𝐔]*
𝑨𝟐
𝒁𝟐 𝐘
https://www.zmescience.com/science/difference-fusion-fission/ 14
De-excitation of Compound Nucleus
o The compound nucleus is highly unstable in an excited state, thus, the de-
excitation occurs by particle and/or photon emission.
compound nucleus

𝟏𝒏 residual
𝟎 + 𝑨𝑿𝒁 → [A+1𝑿𝒁]* → particle +
nucleus

Decay: Decomposition:
o 𝑛, 𝑛 o 𝑛, 𝑓
o 𝑛, 𝑛′
o 𝑛, 𝑝
o 𝑛, 𝛼
o 𝑛, 𝛾

15
Potential Scattering
o A type of elastic scattering which can take place for any energy of the incident
neutron;
o This mode interaction does not involve the formation of a compound nucleus;
o It is a collision of the “billiard ball” type, in which the total energy is conserved.

1𝑛 + 𝐴𝑋𝑍 → 1𝑛0 + 𝐴𝑋𝑍

0

Incident neutron 𝟏𝒏𝟎

𝑨𝑿
𝒁

16
Quantities

17
Formation of Compound Nucleus
o In compound-nucleus formation, the incident neutron is absorbed by the target
nucleus and a compound nucleus is form.
collision &
absorption formation
𝟏𝒏
𝟎
[A+1𝑿𝒁]*
𝐸
𝑨𝑿
𝒁 energy levels

incident neutron 𝟏𝒏𝟎

▪ neutron kinetic energy 𝐸𝑐
𝐸𝑐
target nucleus 𝑨𝑿𝒁
▪ ground state; 𝜎 𝐸
▪ if no kinetic energy.
cross section
binding energy 𝐸𝑏 𝛾 cascade ▪ the extent to
which neutron
interacts with
nucleus.
compound nucleus [A+1𝑿𝒁]*
▪ ground state. 18
Cross Section
o The extent to which neutrons interact with nuclei.
Neutron interactions
1
Atom density: the number
Neutron intensity: the of nuclei per unit volume.
number of 𝑛 incident
neutrons traveling per
𝑰 𝑵 𝐼′
unit volume of a beam
1
with the speed of v:
𝐼 = 𝑛v
𝒅𝒙

▪ The number of collisions (the change of neutron intensity after travel 𝑑𝑥):
𝑑𝐼 = 𝐼′ − 𝐼 = 𝜎 ⋅ −𝐼 ∙ 𝑁𝑑𝑥
▪ Microscopic cross section (the proportionality constant):
−𝑑𝐼 Τ𝐼 o The probability that a neutron collides with a target
𝜎= nucleus in per unit distance/volume;
𝑁𝑑𝑥
o The unit is area, 1barn = 10−24 cm2 = 10−28 m2 .
19
AX Cross Section
Z
o The compound nucleus is highly unstable in an excited state, thus, the de-
excitation occurs by particle and/or photon emission.
compound nucleus

𝟏𝒏 residual
𝟎 + 𝑨𝑿𝒁 → [A+1𝑿𝒁]* → particle +
nucleus

Decay: Decomposition:
o 𝑛, 𝑛 : 𝜎𝑒 o 𝑛, 𝑓 : 𝜎𝑓
o 𝑛, 𝑛′ : 𝜎𝑖𝑒
o 𝑛, 𝑝 : 𝜎𝑝
o 𝑛, 𝛼 : 𝜎𝛼
o 𝑛, 𝛾 : 𝜎𝛾

𝜎total = 𝜎𝑒 + 𝜎𝑖𝑒 + 𝜎𝑝 + 𝜎𝛼 + 𝜎𝛾 + 𝜎𝑓 + ⋯

scattering 𝝈𝒔 absorption 𝝈𝒂 20
Cross Section
o The extent to which neutrons interact with nuclei.
𝑰 𝐼′

Neutron intensity: the

𝒅𝒙
number of 𝑛 incident
neutrons traveling per 𝑰𝟎
unit volume per unit
time:
𝐼 = 𝑛v 𝐼 𝑥 attenuation

0 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐼′ 𝑥 − 𝐼 𝑥 = 𝜎 ⋅ −𝐼 ∙ 𝑁𝑑𝑥
integration

𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝜎𝑁𝑥
▪ Macroscopic cross section:
Σ = 𝜎𝑁
21
Cross Section
o Microscopic cross section: the probability that a neutron collides with a target
nucleus in per unit distance/volume.
−𝑑𝐼 Τ𝐼
𝜎=
𝑁𝑑𝑥
o Macroscopic cross section:
Atom density: the number of
Σ = 𝜎𝑁 nuclei per unit volume.
o The probability that a neutron collides with
all target nuclei in per unit volume;
o The unit is m−1 .

−𝑑𝐼 𝑥 Τ𝐼 𝑥 The percent of neutrons

Σ = 𝜎𝑁 = interacting with nuclei.
𝑑𝑥
o The probability that a neutron collides with
target nuclei in per unit distance of its
trajectory.
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Atom (Number) Density
o The concentration of atoms or molecules per unit volume, that is related to the
material density 𝜌 and the atomic mass number 𝐴 (or atomic weight 𝑀):
𝜌
𝑁 = 𝑁0
A
▪ 𝑁0 : Avogadro’s constant, 𝑁0 = 6.022 × 1023 mol−1 .

23
Cross Section of Homogeneous Mixture
o Two-element mixture of 𝑋 and 𝑌:

Σ = Σ𝑋 + Σ𝑌 = 𝜎𝑋 𝑁𝑋 + 𝜎𝑌 𝑁𝑌

o 𝑛 − element mixture of 𝑋𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑛:

Σ = ෍ Σ𝑖 = 𝜎1 𝑁1 + 𝜎2 𝑁2 + ⋯ + 𝜎𝑛 𝑁𝑛 = ෍ 𝜎𝑖 𝑁𝑖
𝑖 𝑖

▪ 𝑁𝑖 : Atom number density of the 𝑖 − nuclide.

𝜌𝑁0
𝑁𝑖 = 𝛾𝑖
𝑀 o Average atomic weight of the mixture: 𝑀 = ෍ 𝛾𝑖 𝑀𝑖
𝑖

o The percent of the atomic number of 𝑋𝑖 in the mixture;

o e.g. isotope abundance of isotope mixture.

24
Neutron Mean Free Path
Σ ∙ 𝑑𝑥: probability of a neutron
interacting with nuclei in 𝑑𝑥.
Initial neutron intensity 𝑰𝟎
−𝑑𝐼 Τ𝐼
Σ = 𝜎𝑁 =
𝑰 𝒙 𝑑𝑥

𝐼 𝑥
remained neutrons 𝑰 𝒙
𝜮𝒅𝒙 = −𝑑𝐼 Τ𝐼
𝐼 𝑥 Τ𝐼0 : probability of a 𝑥0 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
neutron not reacting with
nuclei in a trajectory of 𝑥.

𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝜎𝑁𝑥

𝐼 𝑥
= 𝑒 −Σ𝑥
𝐼0

25
Neutron Mean Free Path
Σ ∙ 𝑑𝑥: probability of a neutron
interacting with nuclei in 𝑑𝑥.
Initial neutron intensity 𝑰𝟎
−𝑑𝐼 Τ𝐼
Σ = 𝜎𝑁 =
𝑰 𝒙 𝑑𝑥

𝐼 𝑥
remained neutrons 𝑰 𝒙
𝜮𝒅𝒙 = −𝑑𝐼 Τ𝐼
𝐼 𝑥 Τ𝐼0 : probability of a 𝑥0 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
neutron not reacting with
nuclei in a trajectory of 𝑥.

𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝜎𝑁𝑥

o 𝑃 𝑥 𝑑𝑥: the probability that a

neutron reacts with nuclei, for 𝐼 𝑥
= 𝑒 −Σ𝑥
the first time in 𝑥, 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 𝐼0
after travelling 𝑥.

𝑃 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −Σ𝑥 ∙ 𝜮𝒅𝒙
26
Neutron Mean Free Path
𝑃 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −Σ𝑥 ∙ 𝜮𝒅𝒙 exponential distribution

∞
න 𝑃 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1
0

o Expected elapsed path between two successive reactions of a neutron with

nuclei.
∞ ∞
1
𝜆 = 𝑥ҧ = න 𝑥𝑃 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑥Σ𝑒 −Σ𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
0 0 Σ

𝜎 = 𝜎𝑎 + 𝜎𝑠
1 1 1
Σ = Σ𝑎 + Σ𝑠 = +
𝜆 𝜆𝑎 𝜆𝑠
o 𝜆𝑎 : absorption mean free path;
o 𝜆𝑠 : scattering mean free path.
27
Exercise 1
The density of the water H2 O is 103 kgΤm3 , the microscopic absorption cross
sections of hydrogen and oxygen at 0.0253eV are 0.332b and 2.7 × 10−4 b.
o Please calculate the macroscopic absorption cross section of H2 O.
o What is the neutron mean free path in water?

28
Exercise 1 - Solution

29
Exercise 2
Suppose that the density of UO2 is measured equal to 10.5 gΤcm3 and the
enrichment of 235U is 3%. When neutron energy is 0.0253eV, the microscopic
absorption cross sections of 235U, 238U and 16O are 680.9b, 2.7b and 2.7 × 10−4 b.
o What is the macroscopic absorption cross section of UO2 ?
(Note that Avogadro’s constant is 6.022 × 1023 mol−1 ).

30
Exercise 2-1
Suppose the enrichment of 235U is 3%.
o What is the isotopic abundance of 235U in the mixture?

31
Exercise 2-1
o Atomic weight of an atom 𝑀 𝐴𝑋𝑍 : the mass of the neutral atom 𝑚 𝐴𝑋𝑍
relative to the mass of a neutral 12𝐶 atom 𝑚 12𝐶 , on a scale in which the
atomic weight of 12𝐶 is arbitrarily taken to be precisely 12.

𝑚 𝐴𝑋𝑍
𝑀 𝐴𝑋𝑍 = 12 ×
𝑚 12𝐶

o Average atomic weight of the mixture 𝑀 𝑋𝑍 :

𝑀 𝑋𝑍 = ෍ 𝛾𝑖 𝑀𝑖 Atomic weight of the 𝑖th

𝑖 isotope;
Isotope abundance: percentage of
the number of the 𝑖th isotope;
Topic 1

32
Exercise 2 - Solution

33
Reaction Rate
o The (average) number of neutron reactions per unit volume per unit time:
v

𝟏𝒏 v ∙ 1s: the distance that a

𝟎
neutron travels per second.

v ∙ 1s
𝑅= ∙ 𝑛 = 𝑛vΣ
𝜆

o Average number of neutron interactions in

its trajectory per unit time.
▪ v: speed of neutron;
▪ 𝑛: neutron density, 1014 ~1017 m−3 .

o 𝑛 − element homogeneous mixture of 𝑋𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, 2, ⋯ , 𝑛:

𝑅 = 𝑛vΣ = 𝑛v ෍ Σ𝑖 = ෍ 𝑅𝑖
𝑖 𝑖
Slide 24 34
Neutron Flux
o The total length that all free neutrons travel in per unit time in per unit volume:
v ∙ 1s

𝟏𝒏
𝟎

𝜙 = 𝑛v

o Neutron density: the number of

neutrons traveling per unit volume.
▪ Scalar;
▪ Unit: neutron ∙ cm−2 ∙ s −1 ;
▪ Thermal neutron reactor: 𝜙 ≈
1013 ~ 1015 Τ cm2 ⋅ s .

o Reaction rate: 𝑅 = 𝑛vΣ = 𝜙Σ

35
Summary
Quantity Expression Description

−𝑑𝐼Τ𝐼 Microscopic: the probability that a neutron

Cross section 𝜎=
𝑁𝑑𝑥 collides with a target nucleus.

Macroscopic: the probability that a neutron

Σ = 𝜎𝑁
collides with target nuclei in per unit volume.

1 The expected distance between two successive

Mean free path 𝜆=
Σ reactions of a neutron with nuclei.

The (average) number of neutron reactions per

Reaction rate 𝑅 = 𝑛vΣ = 𝜙Σ
unit volume per unit time.

The total length that all free neutrons travel in

Neutron flux 𝜙 = 𝑛v
per unit time in per unit volume.

36
Neutron Spectrum & Cross Section Varying with Energy

37
Neutron Spectrum
o Assume that the neutron density n changes with neutron energy 𝑛 𝐸 :
Neutron intensity: the
number of 𝑛 incident ▪ The neutron energy and speed:
neutrons traveling per 𝑰𝟎 1
unit volume of a beam 𝐸 = 𝑚v 2
with different speed v 2

o Total neutron flux:

∞ ∞
Φ = න 𝜙 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = න 𝑛 𝐸 v 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
0 0
o Reaction rate:
𝑅 = නΣ 𝐸 𝑛 𝐸 v 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = නΣ 𝐸 𝜙 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
38
Cross section varying with energy
o Nucleus cross section is determined by the incident neutron energy and the
(physical) nature of the target nucleus:
Neutron Fast Intermediate Thermal
Energy E > ~1keV 1eV < E < ~1keV E < 1eV
Cross (Very) low cross section, Resonance region, where 1/v region, where cross
section which slightly varies with many resonance peaks section is proportional to
𝜎 𝐸 neutron energy appear in the heavy-mass 1/v or 1/E1/2 of incident
nucleus cross section neutrons.

resonance
Cross section (barns)

region

1/v
region fast
neutrons

Neutron energy (eV) 39

Resonance
o The probability of forming a compound nucleus is extremely large when the
incident neutron energy leads the compound nucleus to very close or equal to
its excited energy level; and very small otherwise.
▪ Capture resonance
▪ Scattering resonance resonance
[A+1𝑿𝒁]* 𝐸 peaks
▪ Fission resonance energy levels

incident neutron 𝟏𝒏𝟎

neutron energy 𝐸
target nucleus 𝑨𝑿𝒁
0
𝜎 𝐸

𝐸𝑏 𝛾

compound nucleus [A+1𝑿𝒁]*

40
Resonance cross section
o Cross section in a resonance level is described by the resonance energy, the
peak cross section and the resonance width, expressed by the Breit–Wigner
single-level resonance formula:
Γ𝛾 𝐸𝑟 Γ2
𝜎𝛾 𝐸 = 𝜎0
Γ 𝐸 4 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑟 2 + Γ 2

𝜎
resonance 𝛾
𝜎 resonance peak
cross section 0

𝜎0
𝜞 resonance width
2

𝐸𝑟 𝐸
resonance
energy 41
Example - fission cross section
235U
92
𝝈𝒇 = 𝟓𝟖𝟑. 𝟓𝒃 when
𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝒆𝑽

1/v region resonance fast neutrons

42
Doppler effect
o Nucleus thermal motion strengthens with increasing temperature;
o Relative energy between neutron and nucleus E’ (E) changes;
o Resonance width increases and peak decreases with increasing temperature.

43