Welcome to

Nucleus
 Discovery of Nucleus

Fluorescent
screen
Scattered 𝛼 - particles
𝛼 - particles
Lead Shield beam
Non-deflected
𝛼 - particles

𝛼 - particles
Ernest Rutherford source Deflected Gold foil

𝛼 - particles

• Most of the space inside an atom is empty.

• A positive charge occupies a small space inside the atom.

 Nucleus

• Nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons.

Neutron Proton
• Free protons and free neutrons are very
unstable in nature, but together they form a
stable nucleus.

• Both protons and neutrons present in the

nucleus are collectively called nucleons.

Electron
• Number of protons and electrons in an atom
must be equal to maintain electric neutrality.

𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 ≈ 10−10 𝑚

𝑟𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 ≈ 10−15 𝑚
 Representation of an Element

𝑨
X
Mass number

Atomic symbol

Atomic number
𝒁Element

Atomic number (𝒁) = Number of protons present in the nucleus

= Number of electrons in the neutral atom

Mass number (𝑨) = Number of nucleons

= No. of neutrons (𝑁) + No. of protons (𝑍)
 Atomic Mass Unit (𝒂𝒎𝒖)

1
1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = × 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 126𝐶 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
12

Mass of 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 of Carbon atoms = 12 𝑔

6 p+
6 e- Mass of 𝑁𝐴 atoms of Carbon
6n = 12 𝑔

12
Mass of 1 atom of Carbon = 𝑔
12 𝑁𝐴

6
C 1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 =
1 12
× 𝑔=
10−3
𝑘𝑔
12 𝑁𝐴 6.023 × 1023

1 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 1.66 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔

 Mass-Energy Equivalence

Mass can be converted into energy and energy can be converted into mass.

• The equivalence of mass and energy is

governed by Einstein’s equation:

1 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

amu • Energy equivalent to 1 𝑎𝑚𝑢

1𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉/𝑐 2

931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉
The energy released in Hiroshima atom bomb was estimated to be 63 𝑇𝐽 of
energy. Using Energy - Mass equation find out the mass that was used up to
release this much energy.

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

63 × 1012 = 𝑚 × 3 × 108 2

63 × 1012
𝑚= = 0.7 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
9 × 1016

Only 0.7 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 of mass was

able to release so much
energy!
 Isobars
Atoms of different elements
whose nuclei have same
number of nucleons but
different number of
neutrons and protons.
Isotopes
Atoms of same elements
whose nuclei have same
number of protons but
different number of neutrons.
Isotones
Atoms of different elements whose
nuclei have same number of neutrons
but different number of protons.
 Average Atomic Weight

Isotope % Availability in nature

𝐴1
𝑍𝑋
𝑝%
𝐴2
𝑍𝑋
𝑞%
𝐴3
𝑍𝑋 𝑟%

𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = × 𝐴1 + × 𝐴2 + × 𝐴3
100 100 100
Atomic weight of Boron is 10.81 and it has two isotopes 10
5𝐵 and 115𝐵. Then the ratio
of 105𝐵: 115𝐵 in nature would be

Solution: Let % availability of 10

5𝐵 in nature = 𝑥

∴ % availability of 11
5𝐵 in nature = 100 − 𝑥

10𝑥 + 11(100 − 𝑥)
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
100

10𝑥 + 11(100 − 𝑥)
10.81 =
100

𝑥 = 19

∴ % availability of 10
5𝐵 in nature = 19%

% availability of 11
5𝐵 in nature = 100 − 19 = 81%
 Shape and Size of Nucleus

• For all practical purposes, shape of the nucleus is

regarded as “Spherical”

• Volume of nucleus ∝ No. of nucleons in nucleus(𝐴)

1
𝑅= 𝑅0 𝐴3

𝑅0 → Constant for all nuclei

𝑅 𝑅0 = 1.2 × 10−15 𝑚 = 1.2 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖

•
1
Radius of nucleus in fermi: 𝑅 = 1.2(𝐴) 𝑓𝑚
3
 Density of Nucleus

• Density of a nucleus:

Mass of nucleons (𝑚)

Density of nucleus = Volume of nucleus (𝑉)

𝐴 × 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
𝑅 =
4 3
3 𝜋𝑅𝑜 𝐴

Density of nucleus ≈ 2 × 1017 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

• Nuclei of all the atoms have same density as it is

independent of mass number.
If the nucleus 27
13𝐴𝑙 has a nuclear radius of about 3.6 𝑓𝑚, then 32𝑇𝑒 would have its
125

radius approximately as

1
Solution: 𝑅= 𝑅𝑜 𝐴3
1 Τ3 1 Τ3
𝑅𝑇𝑒 𝐴 𝑇𝑒 125 5
∴ = = =
𝑅𝐴𝑙 𝐴𝐴𝑙 27 3

5 5
𝑅𝑇𝑒 = × 𝑅𝐴𝑙 = × 3.6
3 3

𝑅𝑇𝑒 = 6 𝑓𝑚
 Gravitation Electro magnetic

Fundamental
Forces
Weak Nuclear Strong nuclear
𝛾

+
Nuclear Force

• Nuclear force acts only between the nucleons i.e.

proton-proton, proton-neutron and neutron-
neutron.

• It is a short-ranged force and is operative only

over the size of nucleus 10−15 𝑚 .

• It is not a central force.

• It is independent of charge, i.e., the nuclear force

between 𝑛 − 𝑛, 𝑝+ − 𝑛 and 𝑝+ − 𝑝+ have
approximately same value.

• Nuclear force is the strongest force in nature.

 Variation of Potential Energy

𝑟0 = 0.8 𝑓𝑚 • Potential energy is least when the

nucleons are separated by 0.8 𝑓𝑚.

• Nuclear force is conservative. So

negative slope of the curve gives force.
Potential Energy (𝑀𝑒𝑉)

+100
𝑑𝑈
− =𝐹
𝑑𝑟

0 • For separation greater than 𝑟0 , nuclear

force is attractive.

• For separation less than 𝑟0 , nuclear

−100 force is repulsive.
𝑟0 1 2 3
• If the separation is more than a few
Separation between the nucleons 𝑓𝑚 femtometres, the force rapidly
decreases to zero.
 Binding Energy

• It is the amount of energy released during the formation of nucleus when constituent
free nucleons are brought together from infinite separation.

+
+ +
+ + ++ + +
𝑍 Protons +
+ (𝐴 − 𝑍) + + = + + +
+ +
+ Binding Energy
+ + +
Neutrons +
+
Nucleus
Free Nucleons

• It is the minimum amount of energy required to break the nucleus into free nucleons.
+
+ +
++ + + + + 𝑍 Protons
+
+ + +
+ +
+ Binding Energy = +
+
+ + (𝐴 − 𝑍)
+ + Neutrons
+
+
Nucleus Free Nucleons
 Mass Defect

• Sum of the mass of all the nucleons separated is greater than

the mass of nucleus.

MNucleus < MNucleons

• When the nucleons are brought together to form the nucleus,

some of the mass gets converted into the binding energy.

• The difference between the total mass of all the nucleons and
experimental mass for all stable nuclei is known as mass defect.

Δ𝑚 = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + 𝐴 − 𝑍 𝑚𝑛 − 𝑀𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠

• According to the mass energy equivalence 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 , ∆𝑚 gets

converted into the binding energy.

𝐸𝑏 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2

𝐸𝑏 = ∆𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉/𝑎𝑚𝑢

Mass of nucleus of 42𝐻𝑒 is 3.97 𝑢. Mass of proton is 1 𝑢 and mass of neutron is
1.0006 𝑢. Calculate the binding energy.

Given: Experimental mass of 42𝐻𝑒 nucleus, 𝑚𝐸 = 3.97 𝑢

𝑚𝑝 = 1 𝑢, 𝑚𝑛 = 1.0006 𝑢

To find: Binding energy (𝐸)

Solution: Total mass of nucleons of 42𝐻𝑒 nucleus, 𝑚 𝑇 = 2𝑚𝑝 + 2𝑚𝑛 = 2 × 1 + 2 × 1.0006

𝑚 𝑇 = 4.0012 𝑢

Mass defect, Δ𝑚 = 𝑚 𝑇 − 𝑚𝐸 = 4.0012 − 3.97 = 0.0312 𝑢

Binding Energy, 𝐸 = Δ𝑚 × 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉 = 0.0312 × 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉

𝐸 = 29.0628 𝑀𝑒𝑉
 Binding Energy per Nucleon

• Ratio of the binding energy 𝐸𝑏 to the number of the nucleons of a nucleus is given by:

𝐸𝑏
𝐸𝑏𝑛 =
𝐴
𝐸𝑏1 𝐸𝑏2
• If binding energy per nucleon is more for a nucleus, then it is more stable. For example:
𝐴1
>
𝐴2

∴ Nucleus 1 is more stable.

• For deuterium, 𝐸𝑏𝑛 is 1.11 𝑀𝑒𝑉.

• 𝐹𝑒 56 has the highest 𝐸𝑏𝑛 of 8.75 𝑀𝑒𝑉.

• Nuclei in the intermediate region (𝐴

≈ 50 − 80) are the most stable.

• For 𝑈 238 , 𝐸𝑏𝑛 drops to 7.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉.

 Binding energy per nucleon versus mass number curve for nuclei is shown in fig.
W, X, Y, and Z are four nuclei indicated on the curve. The process that would
release energy is

Binding energy per nucleon (𝑀𝑒𝑉)

A 𝑌 → 2𝑍 𝑌
8.5

8 𝑋
B 𝑊 →𝑍+𝑋
7.5 𝑊
𝑍
C 𝑊 → 2𝑌 5

0 30 60 90 120
D 𝑋 →𝑌+𝑍 Mass Number (𝐴)
Solution:

For option A: 𝑌 → 2𝑍

Binding energy per nucleon (𝑀𝑒𝑉)

𝑌
Binding energy of reactants = 60 × 8.5 = 510 𝑚𝑒𝑉 8.5

Binding energy of products = 2 × 30 × 5 = 300 𝑚𝑒𝑉 8 𝑋

Δ𝐸 = −210 𝑚𝑒𝑉
7.5 𝑊
Therefore the process is Endothermic.
𝑍
5

For option B: 𝑊 → 𝑍 + 𝑋
0 30 60 90 120
Binding energy of reactants = 120 × 7.5 = 900 𝑚𝑒𝑉 Mass Number (𝐴)

Binding energy of products = 30 × 5 + 90 × 8

= 870 𝑚𝑒𝑉
Δ𝐸 = −30 𝑚𝑒𝑉
Therefore the process is Endothermic.
Solution:

For option C: 𝑊 → 2𝑌

Binding energy of reactants = 120 × 75 = 900 𝑚𝑒𝑉

Binding energy of products = 2 × 60 × 8.5 = 1020 𝑚𝑒𝑉

Δ𝐸 = 120 𝑚𝑒𝑉
Therefore the process is Exothermic.

For option D: 𝑋 → 𝑌 + 𝑍

Binding energy of reactants = 90 × 8 = 720 𝑚𝑒𝑉

Binding energy of products = 60 × 8.5 + 30 × 5

= 660 𝑚𝑒𝑉
Δ𝐸 = −60 𝑚𝑒𝑉
Therefore the process is Endothermic.

⇒ Only the reaction 𝑊 → 2𝑌 is exothermic, so option C is correct.

 Stability Belt

𝑛
• Stable atoms (𝑍 ≤ 20):
𝑝
=1 (𝑁 = 𝑍)

E.g. 42𝐻𝑒, 126𝐶, 147𝑁, 40

20𝐶𝑎
100 𝑛
90 • Stable atoms (𝑍 > 20): 1≤
𝑝
≤ 1.6
(𝑁 = 𝑍)
No. of Neutrons (𝑁)

80
E.g. 56 108
26𝐹𝑒 , 47𝐴𝑔
70
60 Stability Belt • Nuclear force is effective in the short
range, hence it is sufficient to overcome
50
coulombic repulsion in smaller nuclei.
40
30
20 • For larger nuclei, nuclear force decreases
between nucleons at larger distances, hence
10 nuclei with less protons are stable.

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
No. of Protons (𝑍) • Nuclei with very large no. of neutrons are also
unstable, as there are more unpaired nucleons.
 Nuclear Stability

Atom 𝑩. 𝑬. 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑒𝑉 𝑩. 𝑬.Τ𝑵𝒖𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒐𝒏 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑒𝑉 • The stability of a nucleus is judged based on

the binding energy per nucleon, not on the
4
2 0.5 binding energy.
2𝑋

20
8 0.4
• If binding energy per nucleon is more for a
10𝑌 nucleus, then it is more stable.

𝐵. 𝐸./𝑁𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛 𝑋 > 𝐵. 𝐸./𝑁𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛 𝑌

⇒ Atom 𝑋 is more stable than 𝑌.

 Radioactivity

• Amongst 1500 known nuclei, less than 260 are stable.

• The unstable nuclei gains stability by emitting 𝛼-particle or 𝛽-particle and 𝛾-electromagnetic waves.
This phenomenon is called Radioactivity.
• Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. The rate of emission of 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 depends only on concentration of
nuclei, unaffected by temperature, pressure and other physical conditions.

• Despite the silver foil and black paper blocking the

photographic plate, radiations from uranium affected the
plate.
• Henry Becquerel concluded that the invisible radiations could
penetrate through matter.
 Q-value of a Reaction

The difference between the rest mass energy of the reactants and that of the final products is called the Q-value of
a reaction.

𝑄 value = Rest mass energy Rest mass energy

of reactants of products

• It is valid for any nuclear reaction.

• This energy is made available as the kinetic energy of the products.

A+B C+D
𝑚𝐴 𝑚𝐵 𝑚𝐶 𝑚𝐷
𝑈𝑖 = 𝑚𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑐 2

𝑈𝑓 = 𝑚𝐶 + 𝑚𝐷 𝑐 2
𝑄 = +𝑣𝑒, Energy is released
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 − 𝑚𝐶 − 𝑚𝐷 𝑐 2
𝑄 = −𝑣𝑒, Energy is absorbed

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 − 𝑚𝐶 − 𝑚𝐷 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × 931 𝑀𝑒𝑉/𝑎𝑚𝑢

 𝜶 − Decay

• 𝛼 −particle is 42𝐻𝑒 nucleus

• Charge is +2𝑒 → because of the two protons.

• Mass ≈ 4 𝑎𝑚𝑢.

A A-4 4

Z
X Z-2
Y 2
He • Number of nucleons on both reactant and
product sides must be equal.

Parent Daughter 𝛼 particle

nucleus nucleus • If the decay is spontaneous, the
daughter nucleus formed will be
more stable than the parent nucleus.
 Mass Defect in 𝜶 − Decay

A A-4

Z
X Z-2
Y 4
He
2
Parent Daughter
nucleus nucleus 𝛼 particle

𝑚 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 → Mass of atom 𝐴𝑍𝑋 𝑚 𝐴−4
𝑍−2𝑌 → Mass of atom 𝐴−4
𝑍−2𝑌 𝑚 42𝐻𝑒 → Mass of atom 42𝐻𝑒
𝑚𝑋 → Mass of nucleus of 𝐴𝑍𝑋 𝑚𝑌 → Mass of nucleus of 𝐴−4
𝑍−2𝑌 𝑚𝐻𝑒 → Mass of nucleus of 42𝐻𝑒

𝐴
𝑚𝑋 = 𝑚 𝑍𝑋 − 𝑍𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑌 = 𝑚 𝐴−4
𝑍−2𝑌 − (𝑍 − 2)𝑚𝑒 𝑚 42𝐻𝑒 = 𝑀𝐻𝑒 − 2𝑚𝑒
 Q – value in 𝜶 − Decay

A A-4 4

Z
X Z-2
Y 2
He E.g. 238
92𝑈 → 234
90𝑇ℎ + 42𝐻𝑒

Parent Daughter 𝛼 particle

nucleus nucleus

• Mass defect: ∆𝑚 = 𝑚 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 − 𝑍𝑚𝑒 − 𝑚 𝐴−4
𝑍−2𝑌 − 𝑍 − 2 𝑚𝑒 − 𝑚 42𝐻𝑒 − 2𝑚𝑒

• Q – value of the reaction:

𝑄 = [𝑚 𝐴𝑍𝑋 − 𝑚 𝐴−4
𝑍−2𝑌 − 𝑚 42𝐻𝑒 ] × 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉

• This energy is converted into the kinetic energy of the atoms 𝐴−4
𝑍−2𝑌 and 2𝐻𝑒.
4

𝑄 = 𝐾. 𝐸𝑌 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝛼
 Momentum Conservation in 𝜶 −decay

• When external force is zero, momentum

Parent Daughter is conserved.
nucleus 𝛼 particle nucleus 𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑝𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
A 4 A-4

Z
X 2
He Z-2
Y • Parent nucleus is at rest.
𝑝𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 0
𝑝𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼 − 𝑚𝑌 𝑣𝑌 = 0
𝑣𝑋 = 0 𝑣𝛼 𝑣𝑌
𝑚𝛼 𝑣𝛼 = 𝑚𝑌 𝑣𝑌
 𝜷− −Decay

A A • Antineutrino accounts for the Energy & Spin

ZX Z+1Y
𝜷− ഥ
𝝂 momentum conservation.

Parent 𝛽− Daughter Anti-

nucleus nucleus neutrino • 𝛽 − − decay is the conversion of a neutron to a
proton inside the nucleus
Eg: 14
6𝐶 → 0
−1𝑒 + 14
7𝑁 + 𝜈ҧ

• 𝐶 14 undergoes 𝛽 − decay to form 𝑁 14 so that

𝑛 8 𝑛 7 𝑛 𝑛Τ ratio can be decreased, and the nucleus
𝑝
= = 1.33 = =1 ↓
𝑝 6 𝑝 7 𝑝 becomes more stable.
 Antineutrino

1
0𝑛 → 11𝑝 + −10𝑒 + 𝜈ҧ

Charge Rest
Particle Symbol Speed Spin
(𝑄) Mass
1
Antineutrino 0 0 𝜈ҧ 𝑐 ±
2

Anti-neutrinos are invisible and have very high penetration power.

 𝜷− −Decay

A A
Z X 𝜷 −
Z+1 Y ഥ
𝝂
Parent 𝛽− Daughter Anti-
nucleus nucleus neutrino

• Mass of the parent nucleus 𝑚𝑋 = 𝑚 𝐴

𝑍𝑋 − 𝑍𝑚𝑒

• Mass of the daughter nucleus 𝑚𝑌 = 𝑚 𝐴

𝑍+1𝑌 − 𝑍 + 1 𝑚𝑒

• Mass of the 𝛽 − particle 𝑚𝛽− = 𝑚𝑒

• Q-value of the 𝛽 − decay 𝑄= 𝑚 𝐴

𝑍𝑋 −𝑚 𝐴
𝑍+1𝑌 𝑐2 𝑄 = 𝐾. 𝐸𝑌 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑒

Due to the large mass of the residual nucleus, almost all the energy of
the reaction is shared by the beta particle and the antineutrino.
 𝜷+ − Decay

A A
Z X 𝜷+
Z-1 Y 𝝂
Parent 𝛽+ Daughter Neutrino
nucleus nucleus

12 12
+ +10𝑒 + 𝜈  𝛽 + Decay is conversion of a proton to a neutron
7𝑁 → 6𝐶
inside nucleus.

0
+1𝑒 𝛽 + is generated inside • An isolated proton doesn’t beta decay into a neutron,
nucleus as 𝑄 value for such a process would be negative.

• 𝑄= 𝑚 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 −𝑚 𝐴
𝑍−1𝑌 − 2𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2
 𝜷 − Decay

𝛽− Decay 𝛽 + Decay

(𝑚𝑛 > 𝑚𝑝 )

1
0𝑛 → 1
1𝑝 + −10𝑒 + 𝜈ҧ 1
1𝑝 → 1
0𝑛 + +10𝑒 + 𝜈

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚𝑝 + 𝑚𝑒 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉 > 0 𝑄 = 𝑚𝑝 − 𝑚𝑛 + 𝑚𝑒 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉 < 0

Energy released (Exothermic) Energy absorbed (Endothermic)

This is the basic nuclear process underlying 𝛽 − decay.

 Stability Belt

100 𝛽 − decay
90
•
No. of Neutrons (𝑁)

80
Nuclei above stability belt undergo
70 𝛽 − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 to reduce the 𝑛/𝑝 ratio.
60 𝛼 𝑜𝑟 𝛽 + decay
50 • Nuclei below stability belt undergo
40 𝛼 or 𝛽 + 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 to increase the 𝑛/𝑝 ratio.
Stability Belt
30
20
10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
No. of Protons (𝑍)
 Electron Capture

A A
Z X 𝒆−
Z-1 Y 𝝂
Parent electron Daughter Neutrino
nucleus nucleus

• Proton captures 𝐾 shell 𝑒 − and converts into a neutron.

1
1𝑝 + −10𝑒 → 1
0𝑛 +𝜈

• Example: 26
13𝐴𝑙 + −10𝑒 → 26
12𝑀𝑔 +𝜈

• Q-value of the reaction, 𝑄 = 𝑚 𝐴

𝑍𝑋 −𝑚 𝐴
𝑍−1𝑌 𝑐2
 The nucleus 𝑚𝑛𝑋 emits an 𝛼 particle and two 𝛽 − particles. The resulting nucleus is:
S

Solution:
𝛼 𝑚−4 2𝛽 − 𝑚−4𝑋
𝑚𝑋
𝑛 𝑛−2𝑌 𝑛

Note:
Emission of 𝛼 particle decreases mass number by 4 and atomic number
by 2. Emission of two 𝛽 − particles increases atomic number by 2.
 Calculate the Q – value when 𝐴𝑙 25 decays into 𝑀𝑔25 .
T Atomic masses: 𝑚 𝐴𝑙 25 = 24.990432 u, 𝑚 𝑀𝑔25 = 24.985839 u, 𝑚𝑒 = 0.511 𝑀𝑒V

Solution: 𝐴𝑙 25 → 𝑀𝑔25 + 𝑒 + + 𝜈
Q - value of 𝛽 + reaction:
𝐴 𝐴
𝑄= 𝑚 𝑍𝑋 −𝑚 𝑍−1𝑌 − 2𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2
= 24.990432 − 24.985839 × 931.5 − 2 × 0.511 𝑀𝑒𝑉
= 0.004593 × 931.5 − 2 × 0.511 𝑀𝑒𝑉
= 4.2784 − 1.022 𝑀𝑒𝑉
𝑄 = 3.2564 𝑀𝑒𝑉
 𝜸 − Decay

60
27𝐶𝑜

60
𝛽− 28𝑁𝑖*

𝐸γ = 1.17 𝑀𝑒𝑉

𝐸γ = 1.33 𝑀𝑒𝑉
60
28𝑁𝑖

 Sometimes when a nucleus emits 𝛼-particle or 𝛽-particle, the daughter nucleus

formed is in an excited state.
 The excited nucleus tries to return to its ground state and while doing so, it
emits highly energetic radiation called γ - radiation.
 Properties of Nuclear Radiation

𝑒+

𝑒−

𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝛽 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝛾 − 𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠

• Penetrating power of 𝛾 radiation is highest, 𝛼 < 𝛽 < 𝛾

• 𝛼 and 𝛽 rays can be deflected by electric field and magnetic field but not 𝛾 rays

• Ionizing power, 𝛼 > 𝛽 >𝛾

• Uses of nuclear radiation:

1. To detect and treat diseases
2. Carbon Dating
 In the nuclear decay given below
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴−4 ∗ 𝐴−4
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝑌 → 𝑍−1𝐵 → 𝑍−1𝐵
S
The particles emitted in the sequence are

Solution:
𝐴 𝐴
(1) 𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝑌 + 𝛽 − + 𝜈ҧ 𝛽 − − emission

(2) 𝐴
𝑍+1𝑌 → 𝐴−4 ∗
𝑍−1𝐵 + 42𝐻𝑒 𝛼 − emission

(3) 𝐴−4 ∗ 𝐴−4

𝑍−1𝐵 → 𝑍−1𝐵 +𝛾 𝛾 − emission
 Law of Radioactive Decay

• Radioactive decay is a random process.

• A particular nucleus can decay at any time between 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 → ∞.

• It is impossible to predict when a particular nucleus will decay/disintegrate.

• Rutherford and Soddy conducted an experimental study on different kinds

of nuclei and gave a statistical law.

• When there is a large number of nuclei, rate of decay or disintegration ∝

number of active nuclei in sample.
 Law of Radioactive Decay

Rate of decay or disintegration ∝ Number of active

nuclei in sample

𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑁
− ∝𝑁 ⇒ − = 𝜆𝑁
𝑁 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑁0 • 𝜆 is decay constant or disintegration constant

• 𝜆 depends on choice of element and isotope

𝑁
𝑑𝑁 𝑡 𝑡 = 0 → 𝑁0 {Active nuclei at 𝑡 = 0}
න = න −𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁0 𝑁 0 𝑡=𝑡 → 𝑁
𝑡 𝑁
log 𝑒 = −𝜆𝑡
𝑁0

𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
 Law of Radioactive Decay

Rate of disintegration is given by:

𝑑𝑁
𝑅=− = 𝜆𝑁
𝑅 𝑑𝑡

𝑅0 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 ⟶ 𝜆𝑁 = 𝜆𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

⇒ 𝜆𝑁 = 𝜆𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

𝑡 Where 𝑅0 is the rate of disintegration at 𝑡 = 0

⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
 Half Life

• The time in which the number of undecayed nuclei becomes

half of the initial number.
𝑁 𝑁0 ln 2 0.693
𝑡 = 𝑡1/2 →𝑁= 𝑡1/2 = =
2 𝜆 𝜆
𝑁0
• Larger value of 𝑡1/2 or smaller value of 𝜆 suggests that the
𝑁0 radioactive nuclei will be less active and vice-versa.
𝑁0
2
4
• Number of nuclei present after 𝑛 half lives:
𝑡1/2 2𝑡1/2 𝑡
After a time 𝑡 = 𝑛 𝑡1/2 , number of nuclei 1
𝑛

present: 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜
2
 Units of Activity

• Activity: Rate of disintegration of a sample of one or more

radionuclides.

𝑑𝑁
𝑅=− 𝑅 = 𝜆𝑁 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑑𝑡

• 𝑆𝐼 unit for activity: 1 becquerel (𝐵𝑞)= 1 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛/𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

• The popular unit of activity is curie 𝐶𝑖 .

1 curie = 3.7 × 1010 𝐵𝑞 • Activity of 1 𝑔𝑚 Radium

• 1 Rutherford = 106 disintegrations/s = 106 𝐵𝑞

 Half-lives of two radioactive elements 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 20 𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 40 𝑚𝑖𝑛
respectively. Initially, the samples have an equal number of nuclei. After 80
T 𝑚𝑖𝑛, the ratio of decayed numbers of 𝐴 and 𝐵 nuclei will be:

Solution:
For radioactive element 𝐴: For radioactive element 𝐵: Therefore, the ratio of
decayed number of 𝐴 and 𝐵
Half life, 𝑡1/2 = 20 𝑚𝑖𝑛 Half life, 𝑡1/2 = 40 𝑚𝑖𝑛 nuclei is,
After 𝑡 = 80 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 4𝑡1/2 , After 𝑡 = 80 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑡1/2 , 𝑁𝐴′ 15𝑁𝑜 4
= ×
no. of active nuclei of 𝐴 present: no. of active nuclei of 𝐵 present: 𝑁𝐵′ 16 3𝑁𝑜
𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝑜 𝑁𝐴′ 5
𝑁𝐴 = 4 = 𝑁𝐵 = 2 = =
2 16 2 4 𝑁𝐵′ 4
Hence, after 𝑡 = 80 𝑚𝑖𝑛, no. of 𝐴 Hence, after 𝑡 = 80 𝑚𝑖𝑛, no. of 𝐵
nuclei decayed: nuclei decayed:
15𝑁𝑜 ′
3𝑁𝑜
𝑁𝐴′ = 𝑁𝑜 − 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁𝐵 = 𝑁𝑜 − 𝑁𝐵 =
16 4
 Starting with a sample of pure 66
𝐶𝑢, 7/8 of it decays into 𝑍𝑛 in 15 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠.
T The corresponding half-life is

𝑡/𝑇
Solution: 𝑁 1 Where 𝑇 is half-life, 𝑁 is active
= nuclei after time 𝑡, 𝑁0 is active
𝑁0 2
nuclei at time 𝑡 = 0

15/𝑇 3 15/𝑇
1 1 1 1
∴ = ⇒ =
8 2 2 2

15
∴ =3 ⇒ 𝑇 = 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑇
 Average/Mean Life

Sum of lifespans of all the nuclei

𝜏=
Total number of nuclei

Assume that 𝑑𝑁 number of nuclei decay

from time 𝑡 to 𝑡+𝑑𝑡, which means the 𝑡=0 𝑡=𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡
lifespan of 𝑑𝑁 particles is 𝑡.
𝑁=
𝑁𝑜 𝑁 − 𝑑𝑁
Hence, the summation of lives of 𝑑𝑁 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
nuclei is |(𝑑𝑁×𝑡)|.
 Average/Mean Life

• Summation of the lives of all nuclei is given by, Therefore, summation of lives of all nuclei is, 𝑇 =
𝑁𝑜
∞ ∞ 𝑑𝑁 𝜆
𝑇 = න | 𝑑𝑁 × 𝑡 | 𝑇 = න (𝜆𝑁𝑑𝑡)𝑡 [Since = −𝜆𝑁]
0 0 𝑑𝑡 • Now, the total number of nuclei is 𝑁𝑜 .
∞ ∞
Therefore, mean life becomes:
𝑇 = න 𝜆𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 [Since 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
] 𝑇 = 𝜆𝑁𝑜 න 𝑡 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0 Sum of lifespans of all the nuclei
𝜏=
Total number of nuclei
Integrating By Parts, we get,

1 𝑁𝑜
𝑇 = 𝜆𝑁𝑜 × 𝑇=
𝜆2 𝜆

𝑡=0 𝑡=𝑡 𝑡 = 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑁𝑜
𝑁= 𝜏= [Since, 𝑇= ]
𝑁𝑜 𝑁 − 𝑑𝑁 𝑁0 𝜆
𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

1
𝜏=
𝜆
 Relation between Mean Life and Half Life

• Mean or Average Life (𝜏) • Half life 𝑡1/2

1 log 𝑒 2 0.693
𝜏= 𝑡1/2 = =
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆

𝑡1 = log 𝑒 2 × 𝜏 = 0.693 𝜏
2

⟹ Mean life > Half life

 The activity of a freshly prepared radioactive sample is 1010 disintegrations
per second, whose mean life is 109 𝑠. The mass of an atom of this
T radioisotope is 10−25 𝑘𝑔. The mass(in 𝑚𝑔) of the radioactive sample is

Given: 𝑅 = 1010 𝑠 −1 , 𝜏 = 109 𝑠, 𝑚 = 10−25 𝑘𝑔

To find: Mass of radioactive sample 𝑀

Solution: 𝑅0 = 𝜆𝑁0 𝜏 = 1/𝜆
1010
⇒ 1010 = 𝜆𝑁0 ⇒ = 𝑁0 ⇒ 𝑁0 = 1019
𝜆
Now mass of radioactive sample is
𝑀 = 𝑚𝑁0
𝑀 = 10−25 × 1019 𝑘𝑔

𝑀 = 10−6 𝑘𝑔
 Activities of three radioactive substances 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are represented by the
T curves 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 in the figure. Then their half lives are in the ratio

Solution:
Rate of disintegration, ln 𝑅

𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 ⇒ ln 𝑅 = ln 𝑅0 − 𝜆𝑡 6
6 10 ln 2
⇒ 𝜆𝐴 = ⇒ 𝑇1/2 (𝐴) = ln 2 Since, 𝑇1/2 = 4
10 6 𝐴
𝜆
2 𝐶 𝐵
6 5
⇒ 𝜆𝐵 = ⇒ 𝑇1/2 (𝐵) = ln 2 𝑡(𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠)
5 6 0 5 10
2 5
⇒ 𝜆𝐶 = ⇒ 𝑇1/2 (𝐶) = ln 2
5 2
10 5 15
So, 𝑇1/2 𝐴 : 𝑇1/2 𝐵 : 𝑇1/2 𝐶 = : :
6 6 6
⇒ 𝑇1/2 𝐴 : 𝑇1/2 𝐵 : 𝑇1/2 𝐶 = 2: 1: 3
 A rock is 1.5 × 109 𝑦𝑟 old. The rock contains 𝑈 238 which disintegrates to form
𝑃𝑏 206 . Assume that there was no 𝑃𝑏 206 in the rock initially and it is the only
stable product formed by the decay. Calculate the ratio of number of nuclei
of 𝑈 238 to that of 𝑃𝑏206 in the rock. Half-life of 𝑈 238 is 4.5 × 109 𝑦𝑟. (21/3 = 1.259)

Solution: 𝑃𝑏206 is the only stable product formed.

∴ No. of nuclei of 𝑈 238 disintegrated = No. of nuclei of 𝑃𝑏206 formed
𝑁0 {Where, 𝑁0 is the initial
No. of 𝑈 238 nuclei remaining, 𝑁𝑈238 =
2𝑛 number of nuclei of 𝑈 238,
𝑛 is the number of half lives}

𝑁0
No. of 𝑈 238 nuclei disintegrated, 𝑁𝑑 = 𝑁0 − = 𝑁𝑃𝑏206
2𝑛
𝑡 1.5 × 109 1
No. of half life 𝑛 = = =
𝑡1/2 4.5 ×109 3

𝑁0
𝑁 238 2𝑛 1 1
ratio = 𝑈206 = = 𝑛 = ratio = 3.86
𝑃𝑏 1
𝑁0 1 − 2𝑛 2 − 1 213 − 1
 A 280 days old radioactive substance shows an activity of 6000 𝑑𝑝𝑠,
T 140 days later its activity becomes 3000 𝑑𝑝𝑠. What was its initial activity?

Solution:
Rate of disintegration, 𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

6000 = 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝜆 280

3000 = 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝜆 280+140

Dividing both equations:

ln 2
2= 𝑒 −𝜆 −140
⇒ ln 2 = 𝜆 140 ⇒ 𝜆 =
140
Substituting 𝜆 in the equation:
ln 2
−140 280 1
6000 = 𝑅0 𝑒 ⇒ 6000 = 𝑅0 𝑒 − ln 4 ⇒ 6000 = 𝑅0
4
𝑅0 = 24000 𝑑𝑝𝑠
 Applications of Radioactivity

Medicine:
Industries:
• Physicians employ 𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑒 − 131 to determine:
❖ Cardiac output • For power generation using Nuclear fission.

❖ Plasma volume • To measure (and control) the thickness or

❖ Fat metabolism
❖ Activity of the thyroid gland where this
isotope accumulates
• 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑢𝑠 − 32 is useful in the identification of malignant
tumors because cancerous cells tend to accumulate
phosphates more than the normal cells.
density of metal and plastic sheets.
• To induce mutations in plants in order to
develop harder species.
• To stimulate the cross-linking of polymers.
• To preserve certain kinds of foods by killing
microorganisms that cause spoilage.
 A radioisotope 𝑋 with a half life 1.4 × 109 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠 decays to 𝑌 which is stable. A sample
of the rock from a cave was found to contain 𝑋 and 𝑌 in the ratio 1: 7. The age of the
rock is

Solution: 𝑋 𝑌

at 𝑡 = 0 𝑁0 0

at 𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑁0 − 𝑥 𝑥

𝑁0 − 𝑥 1 7 So three half lives would have

= ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑁0 been passed
𝑥 7 8

7
Remaining nuclei of isotope 𝑋 = 𝑁0 − 𝑥 = 𝑁0 − 𝑁0 ∴ 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇1Τ2 = 3 × 1.4 × 109
8

3
1 1
= 𝑁0 = 𝑁0 𝑡 = 4.2 × 109 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
8 2
 The normal activity of living carbon containing matter is found to be about 15
decays per minute for every gram of carbon. Suppose a specimen from Mohenjo-
Daro gives an activity of 9 decays per minute per gram of carbon. Estimate the
T age of the Indus Valley Civilization. Half life of 𝐶 − 14 is 5730 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠. Take ln(5Τ3)
= 0.511

Solution:

The present activity of 𝐶 − 14 is given by

5 ln 2
𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 ⇒ ln = 𝜆𝑡 = ×𝑡
3 𝑡1ൗ
2

⇒ 9 = 15 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
ln 5ൗ3 0.511
⇒𝑡= × 𝑡1ൗ = × 5730
3 ln 2 2 0.693
⇒ = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
5

3 𝑡 = 4225 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
⇒ ln = −𝜆𝑡
5
 Radioactive Equilibrium

A B C
Rate of Rate of
disintegration of A disintegration of B
𝜆𝐴 𝜆𝐵
𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐵

Rate of disintegration of nuclei 𝐴 / rate of formation of nuclei 𝐵, 𝑅𝐴 = 𝜆𝐴 𝑁𝐴

Rate of disintegration of nuclei 𝐵, 𝑅𝐵 = 𝜆𝐵 𝑁𝐵

When the rate of formation becomes equal to the rate of disintegration

for nuclei 𝐵, the condition is called radioactive equilibrium.
∴ 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵

𝜆𝐴 𝑁𝐴 = 𝜆𝐵 𝑁𝐵
 Uranium-238 decays into Radium-226, which in turn decays into Radon-222. Find
the half-life of Uranium, given that 3.32 × 10−7 𝑔 of Radium is found per gram of
T Uranium in old minerals. The atomic weight of uranium and radium are 238 and 226
and half-life of radium is 1600 years (Avogadro number is 6.023 × 1023 𝑔 − 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚).

U Ra Rn
Solution: 238 226 222

In old minerals, the rate of disintegration of 𝑈 238 is equal to the rate of

disintegration of 𝑅𝑎226 i.e., the radioactive equilibrium for 𝑅𝑎226 is achieved.

∴ 𝜆𝑈 𝑁𝑈 = 𝜆𝑅𝑎 𝑁𝑅𝑎

ln 2 ln 2
⇒ 𝑁𝑈 = 𝑁𝑅𝑎
𝑡1ൗ 𝑡1ൗ
2 𝑈 2 𝑅𝑎

𝑁𝑈
⇒ 𝑡1ൗ = 𝑡1
2 𝑈 𝑁𝑅𝑎 ൗ2 𝑅𝑎
 Uranium-238 decays into Radium-226, which in turn decays into Radon-222. Find
the half-life of Uranium, given that 3.32 × 10−7 𝑔 of Radium is found per gram of
T Uranium in old minerals. The atomic weight of uranium and radium are 238 and 226
and half-life of radium is 1600 years (Avogadro number is 6.023 × 1023 𝑔 − 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚).

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒(238 𝑔) of Uranium has 𝑁𝐴 (𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑛𝑜. ) nuclei.

𝑁
1 𝑔 of Uranium has 238
𝐴
nuclei.

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒(226 𝑔) of Radium has 𝑁𝐴 (𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜 𝑛𝑜. ) nuclei.

𝑁𝐴
3.32 × 10−7 𝑔 of Radium has × 3.32 × 10−7 nuclei.
226

𝑁𝐴
𝑁𝑈 238
𝑡1ൗ = 𝑡1 ⇒ 𝑡1ൗ = × 1600
2 𝑈 𝑁𝑅𝑎 ൗ2 𝑅𝑎 2 𝑈 𝑁𝐴 −7
× 3.32 × 10
226

𝑡1ൗ = 4.7 × 109 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠

2 𝑈
 Radioactive Decay in Series

Decay rate of 𝐴1 = 𝜆1 𝑁1 = Production rate of 𝐴2

Decay rate of 𝐴2 = 𝜆2 𝑁2

𝑁1 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡 𝑑𝑁2
= 𝜆1 𝑁1 − 𝜆2 𝑁2
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑁2 + 𝜆2 𝑁2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜆1 𝑁1 𝑑𝑡 𝜆2 𝑡
𝑒 𝜆2 −𝜆1 𝑡
𝑁2 𝑒 = 𝜆1 𝑁0 +𝐶
𝜆2 − 𝜆1
𝑑𝑁2 + 𝜆2 𝑁2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜆1 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑁1 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡
At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑁2 = 0
Multiplying both sides by 𝑒 𝜆2 𝑡

𝜆1 𝑁0 𝜆1 𝑁0
𝑑𝑁2 𝑒 𝜆2 𝑡
+ 𝜆2 𝑒 𝜆2 𝑡
𝑁2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜆1 𝑁0 𝑒 𝜆2 −𝜆1 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 0= +𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶=
𝜆2 − 𝜆1 𝜆1 − 𝜆2

−𝜆1 𝑁0 𝜆1 𝑁0
න 𝑑 𝑁2 𝑒 𝜆2 𝑡
= න 𝜆1 𝑁0 𝑒 𝜆2 −𝜆1 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑁2 𝑒 𝜆2 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝜆2 −𝜆1 𝑡
+
𝜆1 − 𝜆2 𝜆1 − 𝜆2

𝜆2 𝑡
𝑒 𝜆2 −𝜆1 𝑡 𝜆1 𝑁0
𝑁2 𝑒 = 𝜆1 𝑁0 +𝐶 𝑁2 = (𝑒 −𝜆2 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡 )
𝜆2 − 𝜆1 𝜆1 − 𝜆2
 Variation of 𝑵𝟐 with time 𝒕

𝜆1 𝑁0
𝑁2 = (𝑒 −𝜆2𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝜆1𝑡 )
𝜆1 − 𝜆2

• At 𝑡 = 0; 𝑁2 = 0
• At 𝑡 → ∞; 𝑁2 = 0

𝑁2
𝜆1 𝑁1 = 𝜆2 𝑁2

𝜆1 𝑁1 > 𝜆2 𝑁2 𝜆1 𝑁1 < 𝜆2 𝑁2
 A radio nuclide 𝐴1 with decay constant 𝜆1 , transforms into a nuclide 𝐴2 which in
turn decays with decay constant 𝜆2 . Assuming that at the initial moment, the
T preparation contained only the radio nuclide 𝐴1 , find the time interval after which
the activity of radio nuclide 𝐴2 reaches its maximum value.

A1 A2 A3
Solution: 𝜆1 𝜆2

𝜆1 𝑁0
No. of nuclei of 𝐴2 at time 𝑡, 𝑁2 = (𝑒 −𝜆2 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡 )
𝜆1 − 𝜆2

𝜆1 𝜆2 𝑁0
Rate of disintegration of nuclide 𝐴2 , 𝑅2 = 𝜆2 𝑁2 = (𝑒 −𝜆2 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡 )
𝜆1 − 𝜆2

𝑑𝑅2 𝜆1 𝜆2 𝑁0
For 𝑅2 to be maximum, =0⇒ −𝜆2 𝑒 −𝜆2 𝑡 + 𝜆1 𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝜆1 − 𝜆2

⇒ 𝜆2 𝑒 −𝜆2 𝑡 = 𝜆1 𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡
𝜆2
⇒ ln = 𝜆2 − 𝜆1 𝑡
𝜆1 𝜆2
lnൗ𝜆
1
𝑡=
𝜆2 − 𝜆1
 Series Decay – Constant Production Rate

• Find out the maximum number of nuclei of 𝐴 present

at any time during its formation.

𝑅
𝑁𝐴 = 1 − 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
• No. of nuclei of A at any time 𝑡: 𝜆

𝑅 𝑁𝐴 is maximum when 1 − 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 is maximum.

𝑁𝐴 = 1 − 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝜆 1 − 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 is maximum when 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 is minimum.
• No. of nuclei of B at any time 𝑡: 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 → 0 when 𝑡 → ∞
𝑅
𝑅 ∴ 𝑁𝐴 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑁𝐵 = 𝜆𝑡 − 1 + 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝜆
𝜆
 Parallel Decay

Parallel Decay happens when a radioactive nuclei decays into two or more
daughter nuclei simultaneously.

• Effective decay constant:

Y 𝜆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜆1 + 𝜆2

X 𝜆1 • No. of nuclei of X at any time 𝑡:

𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 − 𝜆𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑡

𝜆2
Z • If the probability of respective decay is
𝑃1 and 𝑃2 ,

𝜆1 = 𝑃1 𝜆𝑒𝑓𝑓 , 𝜆2 = 𝑃2 𝜆𝑒𝑓𝑓
 In the parallel radioactive decay,
𝜆1
𝐴 𝐵
𝜆2
𝐴 𝐶

T the time when number of radioactive nuclei of 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 becomes equal is

[ Given, 𝜆1 = ln 3 ℎ𝑟 −1 , 𝜆2 = ln 3 ℎ𝑟 −1 ]

Solution:

No. of nuclei of 𝐴 after time 𝑡, No. of nuclei of 𝐶 after time 𝑡,

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁0 𝑒 − 𝜆1 +𝜆2 𝑡 𝜆2 𝑁0
𝑁𝐶 = 1 − 𝑒− 𝜆1 +𝜆2 𝑡
𝜆1 + 𝜆2

No. of nuclei of 𝐵 after time 𝑡,

Here 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 ⇒ 𝑁𝐵 = 𝑁𝐶
𝑑𝑁𝐵
= 𝜆1 𝑁𝐴 = 𝜆1 𝑁0 𝑒 − 𝜆1 +𝜆2 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 Let at time 𝑡, 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁𝐵 = 𝑁𝐶
𝑁𝐵 𝑡 𝜆1 𝑁0
⇒න 𝑑𝑁𝐵 = න 𝜆1 𝑁0 𝑒 − 𝜆1 +𝜆2 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑁0 𝑒 − 𝜆1 +𝜆2 𝑡
= 1 − 𝑒− 𝜆1 +𝜆2 𝑡
0 0 𝜆1 + 𝜆2
⇒ 1.5𝑒 −(2 ln 3)𝑡 = 0.5
𝜆1 𝑁0
𝑁𝐵 = 1 − 𝑒− 𝜆1 +𝜆2 𝑡
𝜆1 + 𝜆2 𝑡 = 0.5 ℎ𝑟 = 30 𝑚𝑖𝑛
 Nuclear Fission

When the nucleus of an atom splits into lighter nuclei through a nuclear
reaction, the process is termed as nuclear fission.

• It is energetically favourable for the heavy nucleus

Fission to break into two middle-weight nuclei.
product
• The 𝐵𝐸/𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛 of middle weight nuclei is greater
than the 𝐵𝐸/𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛 of heavy nuclei as middle
weight nuclei are more stable.
Heavy Energy
Nucleus • Fission of 1 𝑘𝑔 of uranium generates 1014 𝐽 of
Fission
energy; compared to the burning of 1 𝑘𝑔 of coal
product
that gives 107 𝐽.
 Uranium Fission

𝑈 − 236 Is artificially made by colliding thermal neutron with 𝑈 − 235.

235 236
92 U 92 U
1
0𝑛

• A Uranium ore contains, 99.3% 𝑈 − 238 and only 0.7% 𝑈 − 235.

235 236 144 89

92 U 92 U Ba Kr
1
0𝑛
56 36

235 236 133

92 U
99
92 U 51 Sb 41Nb
1
0𝑛

235 236 140

92 U
94
92 U 54 Xe Sr
1
0𝑛
38
 Uranium Fission

++ + ++ 89
+ + + 36𝐾
+++
++ + ++
++ + ++ + + +
+
+ + + ++ + +++
+++ + + + Energy
+++
235
92𝑈 236
92𝑈 ++ + ++
+ + +
Unstable +++
Nucleus 144
56𝐵𝑎

• On an average 2.5 neutrons are released in each Uranium fission reaction.

• Uranium sample is bombarded by slow-moving neutrons (thermal neutrons).

• A 92𝑈 nucleus
235
has large probability of absorbing a slow neutron and forming
92𝑈 nucleus.
236

1 + 235 236
0𝑛 92𝑈 92𝑈
 Uranium Fission

• A range of nuclei are formed in the fission of Uranium,

but the nuclei having mass no. 95 and 140 have the

Fission yield %
maximum yield.

• The fission products formed are not always stable.

The unstable fission products further decay into
stable nuclei.

• In each fission event, about 200 𝑀𝑒𝑉 of energy is released.

0.001

• Energy released appears in the form of kinetic energies Mass number 𝐴

of the two fragments.
 Chain Reaction

++ + ++ ++ + ++
+ + + + + +
+++
+ +
+
++ + ++
+ + + ++ + ++
+ + Energy + + +
+ +++

Slow moving
++ + ++ ++ + ++
thermal neutron + + + 144 + + +
+ + 56𝐵𝑎 +++
0.04 𝑒𝑉 +
3 neutrons

9 neutrons
{2 𝑀𝑒𝑉 - fast moving}
 Difficulties in Chain Reaction

• 238
92𝑈 is non-fissile.
• This radioactive element is not fissile by thermal
neutrons.
• 238
92𝑈 can only be fissioned with high energy
neutrons (≈ 1 MeV).
• A 238
92𝑈 nucleus on collision with a fast-moving
neutron releases three slow neutrons along with
the daughter nuclei.

• So, these slow neutrons will not be able to do

𝟏 further fission of 238
92𝑈 unless energy is provided.
𝟎𝒏
𝟐𝟑𝟖
𝟗𝟐𝑼
𝟏 𝐌𝐞𝐕 • The fuel 235
92𝑈 is fissionable only by slow neutrons
Slow neutron
(energy 1 𝑒𝑉) or by thermal neutrons (0.025 𝑒𝑉).

• A 235
92𝑈 nucleus on collision with a thermal neutron
releases 3 fast moving neutrons along with the
daughter nuclei. But these fast neutrons can be
moderated.

• We have to slow down these neutrons to lower

energy level so that they can cause further fission.
 Multiplication Factor 𝐾

Multiplication factor 𝐾 : The ratio of fission produced by a given

generation of neutrons to the number of fission of preceding generation.

• 𝐾 is the measure of growth rate of neutrons in a reactor.

• 𝐾 = 1: Operation of the reactor is critical.

• 𝐾 > 1: Reaction rate increases exponentially (reactor is Super Critical).

• 𝐾 < 1: Reaction is dying out or decaying (reactor is Sub Critical).

 Nuclear Reactor

Coolant
Neutron Steam To turbine
Reflector
Electricity
generation
Control Fuel rod
Heat Exchanger
Rods

Water from
Moderators condenser
 Components of Nuclear Reactor
Control Rods:
Fuel Rod: • These are made with
neutron-absorbing material
• Uranium ( 235
92𝑈) is the basic fuel.
such as cadmium, hafnium
• Usually pellets of uranium oxide or boron, and are inserted
(𝑈𝑂2 ) are arranged in tubes inside or withdrawn from the core
the core to form fuel rods. to control the rate of
reaction, or to halt it.
• They are used to maintain
the 𝐾 value near unity (𝐾 ≈ 1).
Moderator:

Coolant:
• Material in the core which slows down the
neutrons released from fission so that they • It is a fluid which
cause fission in a controlled manner. circulates through the
core in 2 − 3 loops to
• It is usually water, but in some power plants, transfer the heat away
heavy water or graphite is also used. from it.
• Coolant should have high
specific heat capacity.
Example: Water, 𝐶𝑂2 , Air.
 In a reactor, 2 𝑘𝑔 of 235
92𝑈 fuel is fully used up in 30 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠, the energy released per
fission is 200 𝑀𝑒𝑉. Given that the Avogadro number, 𝑁 = 6.023 × 1023 per mole and
T 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽. The power output of the reactor is close to

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑
Power output of the reactor, 𝑃 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

No. of nuclei = 𝑁𝐴 × 𝑛 = 6.023 × 1023 × 8.51 = 51.25 × 1023

51.25 × 1023 × 200 × 106 × 1.6 × 10−19 = 164 × 1012 𝐽

164 × 1012
𝑃= ⇒ 𝑃 = 60 𝑀𝑊
30 × 24 × 60 × 60
 Breeder Reactor

A nuclear reactor which creates fissile material at a faster rate than it uses
another fissile material as fuel.

𝜈ҧ

𝜈ҧ

• When fast neutrons strike Uranium fuel in a reactor, 238

92𝑈
(which is present along with 235
92𝑈 in natural Uranium)
absorbs a neutron and becomes 239 92𝑈. This is radioactive
and undergoes 𝛽- decay twice to produce 239
94𝑃𝑢 .

• If more than one neutron can be absorbed by 𝑈 − 238 rods

per fission, then we produce more fuel than we consume.
 Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion is when two or more atomic nuclei fuse to form a single heavier nucleus.

Columbic
repulsion

• For fusion to take place, the two nuclei must come close enough ≈ 1 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖
so that attractive short-range nuclear force is able to affect them.

• Height of coulomb barrier depends on charge and radii of two interacting

nuclei. Example: barrier height for two protons is, ≈ 400 𝑘𝑒𝑉
 Nuclear Fusion

• If the temperature of the gas is 𝑇, the average kinetic energy of each nucleus will be:

• To achieve 𝐾. 𝐸. of 400 𝑘𝑒𝑉, a temperature of 3 × 109 𝐾 is required.

• When fusion is achieved by raising the temperature of the

system so that particles have enough kinetic energy to
overcome the Coulomb repulsion, it is called thermonuclear
fusion.

• From Maxwell’s speed distribution, there are few nuclei

which have very high speeds, so, their 𝐾. 𝐸. would also be
much greater than the average 𝐾. 𝐸.

• Once the fusion process starts, the energy released would be

sufficient to keep the fusion process going.
 Two deuterons undergo nuclear fusion to form a Helium nucleus. Energy released
in this process is (given binding energy per nucleon for deuteron = 1.1 𝑀𝑒𝑉 and for
T helium = 7.0 𝑀𝑒𝑉)

𝐻12 + 𝐻12 → 𝐻𝑒24 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

Energy released = 4 𝐵. 𝐸. 𝐻𝑒24 − 2 𝐵. 𝐸. 𝐻12 + 2 𝐵. 𝐸. 𝐻12

 Thermonuclear Fusion: The Sun

• Thermonuclear fusion in the Sun occurs in four steps:

• The net reaction:

• Four 𝐻 atoms are used to synthesize 𝐻𝑒.

• Energy liberated per nucleon in

nuclear fusion is much greater than
that in nuclear fission.
 Life of Star

• Elements with more nucleons in their nuclei are • When an average sized star like the Sun runs out
unstable. Atoms after 𝐹𝑒 cannot be synthesized of 𝐻, it will collapse under its own gravity and
in fusion. begin to cool down.

• Once a star runs out of its supply of lower elements, • The outer layer of the star expands, and star
it cools down and begins to die. goes into a state known as “Red giant”.

• Life of our Sun is around 5 × 109 years and it has enough • Our Sun will enter red giant phase in 5
hydrogen to keep going for another 5 billion years. billion years.
 Nuclear Fusion vs Nuclear Fission

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

• When the nucleus of an atom splits • Nuclear fusion is a reaction through

into lighter nuclei through a nuclear which two or more light nuclei
reaction, the process is termed collide with each other to form a
nuclear fission. heavier nucleus.

• The energy released during nuclear

• When each nucleus splits, a
fusion is several times greater than
tremendous amount of energy is
the energy released during nuclear
released.
fission.

• The atomic bomb works on the • The hydrogen bomb works on the
principle of nuclear fission. principle of nuclear fusion.
 When 73𝐿𝑖 nuclei are bombarded by protons, and the resultant nuclei are
4𝐵𝑒, the emitted particles will be
8
T

𝐿𝑖37 + 𝐻11 → 𝐵𝑒48 + 𝑋𝑧𝐴

𝑍 for the unknown 𝑋 nucleus = 3 + 1 − 4 = 0

𝐴 for the unknown 𝑋 nucleus = 7 + 1 − 8 = 0

Hence particle emitted has zero 𝑍 and zero 𝐴. It is gamma photon.