ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Name: Mr. Burnett

Date: 03/05/2021
Class: 6A Physics
Structure of the Atom
• In the early twentieth century the structure of the atom
was first put forward by a scientist J.J Thomson. He held
the view that the atom consisted of negatively charged
‘plums’ in a large sphere of positively charged
‘pudding’. Thus he proposed the model known as the
‘plum pudding’ model of the atom.
• However, later on in about 1909, Ernest Rutherford
(Father of Nuclear Physics) along with his assistants
Geiger and Marsden carried out an experiment to test
the validity of Thomson’s model, which was eventually
proven incorrect.
Thomson’s ‘plum pudding’ model
Geiger Marsden Experiment
• This experiment changed the way we think about the
atom originally posed by J.J Thomson.
• Geiger and Marsden set up an alpha (α) source that fired
high speed alpha particles through a lead collimator at a
thin sheet of gold foil (because if its high atomic mass)
and it was expected that the particles would pass straight
through. However, it was also found that some of the
alpha particles were deflected in many directions of which
1 in 8000 were backscattered. A zinc sulphide (ZnS)
screen was used to detect these particles and there were
scintillations or flashes observed each time the particle
strikes the screen.
Geiger Marsden Experiment
Geiger Marsden Experiment
• Conclusions
• As a result of these deflections due to electrostatic
repulsion (alpha particles being positively charged) it was
concluded that the atom has a positively charged
nucleus at its centre.
• The nucleus contains most of the mass of the atom.
• Most of the alpha particles pass straight through the gold
foil indicating that the atom consists mostly of empty
space.
Geiger Marsden Experiment
Summary: Thomson vs Rutherford
• It can be found that a typical nuclear diameter is 1 x 10 –14

m while the typical atomic diameter is 1 x 10 –10 m.

Relative Mass in Relative Actual

Mass kg Charge Charge
Proton 1 1.67x10-27 +1 1.6x10-19

Neutron 1 1.67x10-27 0 0

Electron 9.11x10-31 -1 1.6x10-19

Nuclide Notation for Isotopes

Mathematically, the notation is written as,

A=Z+N
Isotopes
• The number of protons in an atom is crucial. It gives
you the charge of the nucleus and therefore it gives you
the number of electrons needed for a neutral atom.
• Change the number of protons and you change the
element.
• The number of neutrons in the nucleus is
less crucial. You can change the number of
neutrons without changing the chemical
properties of the atom. So it behaves in the
same way. Atoms with the same proton
number but different numbers of neutrons
are called isotopes.
•1 H, 21H, 31 H are isotopes of hydrogen.
1
 PQ1
• A neutral atom of carbon is represented
by:

• (i) Name the constituents of this atom and

state how many of each are present.
(ii) Which constituent of an atom has the
largest charge-to-mass ratio?
(iii) Carbon has several isotopes. Explain
the term isotope.
PQ2
• a) Name the constituent of an atom which
• (i) has zero charge,
(ii) has the largest charge to mass ratio,
(iii) when removed leaves a different isotope of the element.

• (b) An α particle is the same as a nucleus of helium, .

The equation,

• represents the decay of thorium by the emission of an particle.

Determine:
• (i) the values of X and Y, shown in the equation,
• (ii) the ratio of the mass of the radium nucleus to the mass of the
alpha particle
Millikan’s Oil drop Experiment
• In this experiment, a scientist by the name of Robert Millikan set out
to determine the mass and charge of an electron. He used an
illuminated chamber that consisted of an atomiser (a perfume-like
bottle) at the top containing oil and when squeezed produced fine
oil droplets. These tiny oil droplets fell unto one of two oppositely
charged plates in the chamber (upper plate) which had a small hole
through which some occasionally passed. The motion of many of
these oil droplets were observed through a microscope with a
calibrated eye-piece. Knowing the distance they fell and with a
stopwatch in hand, their terminal velocity was calculated to help find
their mass. Millikan then created an electric field between the two
plates by applying a voltage across them with the aid of a battery.
X-rays were aimed at the chamber ionising these oil droplets giving
them a charge. These charged oil droplets experienced three (3)
types of forces at this point:
Millikan’s oil drop Experiment
Millikan’s oil drop Expt.
• 1) Gravitational force (force due to gravity)
• 2) Electrostatic force (applied electric field)
• 3) Viscous force ( frictional force as a result of the relative
motion of oil droplets).
• The voltage was adjusted such that the electrostatic force
(Felec =qE) and the gravitational force (Fgrav = mg) were in
equilibrium causing the particle to become stationary.
Millikan’s Oil drop Expt.

• Felec = F grav

• qE = mg
• But E = V/d
• Therefore,
q =• mgd
V
Millikan’s expt cont…
• With m, g, d and V known, the charge, q, on the electron
was 1.6 x 10-19 C.
• Thomson in 1897 discovered the charge to mass ratio
(e/m) to be 1.75 x 1011 C/kg . Thus the mass of the
electron was found to be,
• melectron = e / (e/m)
• melectron = 1.6 x 10-19 C / 1.75 x 1011
• melectron = 9.11 x 10-31 kg
Millikan’s Experiment
• Quantization of charge
• Further, in conducting the experiment Millikan found that
the charge on each oil droplet was quantized meaning
that the charge of an electron increases by whole number
integrals, n, where n=1, 2, 3 etc

q = ne
NUCLEAR ENERGY
Mass Defect or Mass difference (∆M)
• The mass defect (∆M) of a nucleus is the difference
between the total mass of all its separate nucleons and
the mass of the nucleus itself.
• Sometimes referred to as the ‘missing mass’ for when
the protons, neutrons and electrons are inside the nucleus
of an atom, their total mass is less than when there are
ejected out of the nucleus.
• It is a measure of the binding energy. The greater the
mass defect, the greater the binding energy.
Mass defect/difference formula
• Mass defect (∆m) = mn(A-Z) + mp(Z) – mass of nucleus ( ))

• Where,
• mn - mass of neutrons
• mp - mass of protons
• A = nucleon number or mass number
• A-Z = N, the number of neutrons
• Z= the number of protons
• *mass of nucleus = (mass of atom) – mass of electron x(# of electrons, e)
• where e = Z

• **N.B Nuclear mass (mass of the protons and neutrons) is what we use

to calculate the mass of the nucleus and not the ‘atomic mass’ which is
the total mass of the atom (inclusive of electrons).
Binding Energy (∆E)
• The binding energy (∆E) is the energy released when
the nucleus is assembled from its constituent nucleons or
the energy needed to separate the nucleus into individual
nucleons.
• It follows that the total mass of all the separated nucleons
is greater than that of the nucleus, in which they are
together.
Binding Energy formula
• Binding Energy (Eb ) = Mass defect (Δm) x 931MeV
= mn(A-Z) + mp(Z) – mass of nucleus ( ) x 931MeV

• Recall: Nucleon number, A = Z (proton number) + N

(neutron number)
• atomic mass unit, 1u = 931MeV
Tip to note
• When the nucleons come together in the nucleus, there is
a loss of energy equal to the binding energy. This results
in a decrease in mass (mass defect), from Einstein’s
mass-energy relation. When they are ejected from the
nucleus, the energy released is converted into matter,
restoring the nucleons to their original masses .
Binding energy per nucleon
• This a measure of how tightly a nucleus is bound: more
binding energy per nucleon means a more stable, tightly-
bound nucleus.
Graph of Binding energy per nucleon vs Nucleon
Number

In the blue shaded region two light elements fuse yielding a

heavy more stable nuclei while heavier elements highlighted
in yellow undergo fission to produce more stable nuclei both
giving off energy in the process. Iron (Fe) has the highest
binding energy per nucleon (~8.8MeV) and as a result
has the most stable nucleus.
Einstein’s mass-energy equation
• Einstein related mass and energy numerically in his
famous equation:
• ∆E = ∆mc2
• Where,
• E = energy measured in joules (J)
m = mass measured in kilograms (kg)
c = the speed of light 3 x 108 ms-1
• This equation tells us that mass can be converted into
energy and energy can be converted into mass with the
speed of light, c, constant.
Atomic mass unit (u)
• The atomic mass unit (u) is defined as 1/12 of the mass
of the carbon atom (12C). It replaces the unit of kilogram in
order to accurately measure masses on the atomic level.
The number of molecules in 1 mole of carbon is 6.02 x
1023 (Avogadro’s constant) and since carbon is monatomic
(consist of one atom), there are 6.02 x 1023 atoms of
carbon that has a total mass of 12g.
Atomic mass unit (u)

From Einstein’s mass-

energy relation

• ** 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J

1MeV = 1.6 x 10-13J

In general, the relative atomic mass (Ar or R.A.M) of any

atom can be found by the relation:
Example 1
• Calculate the binding energy per nucleon for an alpha
particle whose mass defect is calculated as 0.0292amu.
• Solution:
•
• Binding energy = Mass defect × 931MeV

• Binding energy = 0.0292 × 931 = 27.1852MeV

• Binding energy per nucleon = 27.1852 / 4 = 6.7963MeV

Example 2
• Find the nuclear binding energy for 9Be4 in which the
mass defect is given by 0.06248amu?

Solution:  
Binding energy per nucleus = mass defect x 931MeV

Binding energy per nucleus = 0.06248 × 931.5 = 58.20

MeV

Number of nucleons in 9Be4 = 9

Binding energy per nucleon = (58.20 / 9) MeV = 6.47MeV

Nuclear Fission
• This is the ‘splitting’ of a heavy unstable nucleus into two
lighter more stable nuclei. This occurs when a neutron is
captured by a heavy nucleus (Uranium-235) causing it to
become unstable and decays emitting two lighter nuclei
and on average two or three more neutrons. A lot of
energy is given off when these nuclei split and this energy
can be used to make electricity from the heat given off in
a nuclear reactor (by using it to boil water, producing
steam, the pressure from which can be used to turn
turbines).Like in fusion, there is some mass that is lost
‘missing mass’ after the reaction that is converted into the
energy released.
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear Fusion
• Nuclear fusion is the joining of light nuclei to form a
heavy and more stable nuclei. It is important to note that
when two nuclei combine or ‘fuse’ there is a decrease in
mass (increase in mass difference) that is converted
into energy. This reaction is responsible for the energy
release of the Sun and stars and can be used to produce
steam to drive turbines in a power station and produce
electricity. The process of fusion is difficult as the nuclei
must first overcome the force of electrostatic repulsion in
order to fuse.
Nuclear Fusion
PQ1
• Calculate:
• a) the mass defect
• b) the binding energy
• c) the binding energy per nucleon of
• (i) C
12

• ii) 3He
• iii) 4He.
• State which of these you expect to be most stable and
why.
MC1
• The mass of the beryllium nucleus is 7.01473 u. What is
the binding energy per nucleon of this nucleus?

• Use the following data:

• mass of proton = 1.00728 u

mass of neutron = 1.00867 u

• a) 1.6 MeV nucleon-1

Ans: b
• b) 5.4 MeV nucleon-1
• c) 9.4 MeV nucleon-1
• d) 12.5 MeV nucleon-1
MC2
• What is the mass difference of the nucleus?

• Use the following data:

• mass of a proton = 1.00728 u

mass of a neutron = 1.00867 u
mass of a Li nucleus = 7.01436 u

• a) 0.03912 u
Ans: d
• b) 0.04051 u
• c) 0.04077 u
• d) 0.04216 u
PQ2
• (a) State what is meant by the binding energy of a nucleus.

• (b)
• (i) The iron isotope (atomic mass: 55.93493u) has a very
high binding energy per nucleon. Calculate its value in MeV.
• Use the following data:
• Mass of electron = 0.00055u
• mass of proton = 1.00728 u
• mass of neutron = 1.00867 u
• (ii) If the isotope were assembled from its constituent
particles, what would be the mass change, in kg, during its
formation? (Ans: b i) 8.79MeV; ii) 8.783 x 10 -28 kg)
PQ3
• (a) In the context of an atomic nucleus,
• (i) state what is meant by binding energy, and explain how it arises,
• (ii) state what is meant by mass difference,
• (iii) state the relationship between binding energy and mass difference.

• (b) Calculate the average binding energy per nucleon, in MeV nucleon –1, of the
nucleus..

• mass of atom = 63.92915 u

• mass of proton = 1.00728 u
• mass of neutron = 1.00867 u
• mass of electron = 0.00055 u

• (c) Why would you expect the zinc nucleus to be very stable?

• (Ans: b) 8.739MeV
PQ4
• Nuclei of Po decay by the emission of an α particle to form a
stable isotope of an element X. You may assume that no γ emission
accompanies the decay.
• (a)
• (i) State the proton number of X.
• (ii) State the nucleon number of X.

• (b) Each decaying nucleus of releases 8.6 × 10–13 J of energy.

• (i) State the form in which this energy initially appears.
• (ii) Using only the information provided in the question, calculate the
difference in mass between the original polonium atom and the
combined mass of an atom of X and an α particle. (Ans: bii) Δm = 9.6
x 10-30 kg )
• speed of light in vacuum = 3.0 × 108 ms–1
PQ5
• a) The mass of a nucleus is M.
• (i) If the mass of a proton is mp, and the mass of a neutron is m n, give an expression for the mass difference ∆m of this
nucleus.
• (ii) Give an expression for the binding energy per nucleon of this nucleus, taking the speed of light to be c.
• (2 marks)
• (b) The figure below shows an enlarged portion of a graph indicating how the binding energy per nucleon of various
nuclides varies with their nucleon number.

• (i) State the value of the nucleon number for the nuclides that are most likely to be stable. Give your reasoning.
• (ii) When a fission of uranium 235 takes place so that the nucleus splits into two roughly equal parts and approximately
200 MeV of energy is released. Use information from the figure above to justify this figure, explaining how you arrive at
your answer.
Nuclear Reactions
• Nuclear reactions must obey the law of conservation of
charge and mass which states that the total mass
(nucleon) number and the total charge (proton) number
before must be equal to mass and charge after the
reaction.
 238 4 234
92U 2 He + 90Th

 234 0 234
90 Th −1 e+ 91 Pa
Nuclear Reactions
• Whenever the total atomic mass of the nucleus is greater
than the atomic mass of the products obtained in a
nuclear reaction, energy is released and the parent
nucleus is unstable (emits spontaneously). Conversely,
when the sum of the atomic masses of the products are
greater than that of the nucleus, energy is absorbed and
the nucleus is said to be stable (cannot emit
spontaneously).
Nuclear Reactions
•  For example, consider the following nuclear equation,
•
• +

• Here, the atomic mass of the nucleus is greater than that

of the products in the reaction. Energy is thus released to
obtain the reaction products and the Polonium (Po)
nucleus is said to be unstable.
Nuclear Reactions
•  On the other hand, if energy has to be absorbed by the
nucleus in order to obtain the reaction products, the
nucleus is said to be stable. Example:

• +

Energy
absorbed
Summary
• In nuclear reactions, energy can either be released or
absorbed by the parent nucleus.

• Recall that the energy absorbed or released is the binding

energy which is a measure of the mass defect (the mass lost or
gained when a nuclear reaction such as fission or fusion
occurs).

• Atomic masses of products < nucleus

• Nucleus = unstable; Energy is released by the nucleus

• Atomic masses of products > nucleus

• Nucleus = Stable; Energy is absorbed by the nucleus
Web Revision
• Hey 6A google: cyberphysics.co.uk where you will find the
answers to the questions on this slide as well as some
useful revision for all the different topics in Physics.

• All the best guys and God bless you 