STEEL LATTICE STRUCTURE

LITERATURE STUDY
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY
A Lattice structure or space frame(3D truss) is a rigid, lightweight,
Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922). In the first decade
truss-like structure constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric
pattern. Space frames can be used to span large areas with few interior
of the twentieth century he experimented with space trusses
supports. Like the truss, a space frame is strong because of the inherent composed of octahedral and tetrahedral units. Bell
rigidity of the triangle; flexing loads (bending moments) are transmitted appreciated the dual properties of high strength and light
as tension and compression loads along the length of each strut. weight exhibited by the rigid three-dimensional tetrahedral
forms and incorporated them into many of his projects.
AIM The history of lattice structures started in mid- to late-19th
The main aim of this dissertation is to explore the scope of Steel century, when iron and steel were introduced to the building
lattice structures and the way they have changed the process of industry as construction materials. The reasons for and
designing.
circumstances crucial to this turning point in architecture are
OBJECTIVE explored in Industrial Revolution came the wider
• To study about the steel lattice structure. production of iron and then steel, high-strength materials
• To understand the fundamentals of steel lattice structure. that permitted the construction of more delicate structures of
• To Study the variety of integrated features of lattice structure. longer span or greater height.
• How connecting and assembling processes.
The Eiffel Tower in Paris constructed from wrought iron
SCOPE AND LIMITATION between 1897 and 1899, bear witness to the stability and
The scope of this research is that to know about the durability of modular three dimensional metal construction.
steel lattice structure, the variety of integrated The most prominent construction of that period in France
features of lattice structure and its working and was a tower built by Gustave Eiffel & Co in 1889. Designed
assembling process. The research is limited to as the entrance arch for the World‘s Fair, it represented a
focusing single layer grid and double layer grid on new approach to engineering and architecture.
the steel lattice structure.
DEFINITION OF THE LATTICE STRUCTURE
METHODOLOGY A space frame is a structure system assembled of linear elements so arranged that
forces are transferred in a three-dimensional manner. In some cases, the constituent
If a force is applied to the blue element may be two-dimensional. Macroscopically a space frame often takes the
node, and the red bar is not form of a flat or curved surface.
present, the behaviour of the In this section the terms space frames and latticed structures are considered
structure depends completely on synonymous.
the bending rigidity of the blue
node. If the red bar is present, CLASSIFICATION
and the bending rigidity of the There are two types of grid layers, single, double
blue node is negligible compared • A single layer space frame that has the form of a curved
to the contributing rigidity of the surface is termed as braced vault, braced dome, or latticed
red bar, the system can be shell.
calculated using a rigidity matrix, • A double layer grid mainly use for long span roof .
neglecting angular factors.
DOUBLE LAYER GRIDS
Double layer grids, or flat surface space frames, consist of two There are Different types of double layer grids are grouped and
planar networks of members forming the top and bottom layers named according to their composition and the names :
parallel to each other and interconnected by vertical and inclined web
Group A. Composed of square pyramids
members.
1. Square on square geometry
Double layer grids are characterized by the hinged joints with no 2. Square on diagonal geometry
moment or torsional resistance; therefore, all members can only 3. Diagonal square on square geometry
resist tension or compression. 4. Diagonal on diagonal geometry
1. Square on square 2. Square on diagonal
Double layer grids are usually composed of basic elements such as:
Group 2B. Composed of triangular pyramids
• a planar latticed truss 1. triangle on triangle offset
• a pyramid with a square base that is essentially a part of an 2. triangle on hexagonal offset
octahedron
• a pyramid with a triangular base (tetrahedron)

3. Diagonal square on 4. Diagonal on square

diagonal square

1.triangle on triangle offset 2. triangle on hexagonal offset

Cambering and Slope
To solve the water run-off problem in those
Most double layer grids are sufficiently stiff, so cambering is locations with heavy rains, it is best to form
often not required. Cambering is considered when the structure a roof slope by the following methods :
These basic elements used for various types of double-layer grids under load appears to be sagging and the deflection might be
1. Establishing short posts of different height on
visually undesirable. the joints of top layer grids.
A large number of types of double layer grids can be formed by • It is suggested that the cambering be limited 2. Varying the depth of grids.
these basic elements. They are developed by varying the direction of to 1/300 of the shorter span. 3. Forming a slope for the whole grid.
the top and bottom layers with respect to each other and also by the Cambering is usually done in 4. Varying the height of supporting columns.
positioning of the top layer nodal points with respect to the bottom (a) cylindrical,
layer nodal points. (b) ridge
(c, d) spherical shape.
Additional variations can be introduced by changing the size of the 1 2
top layer grid with respect to the bottom layer grid. Thus, internal
openings can be formed by omitting every second element in a
normal configuration.

Ways of cambering. 3 4
SINGLE LAYER GRIDS
1. Orthogonal grid with single bracing of Warren truss (a) Braced sphere
The main difference between double layer grids and latticed shells is the
2. Orthogonal grid with single bracing of Pratt truss (b)
form. For a double layer grid, it is simply a flat surface. For latticed shell, The geodesic dome was developed by the
3. Orthogonal grid with double bracing (c)
the variety of forms is almost unlimited. A common approach to the American designer Buckminster Fuller,
4. Lamella (d)
design of latticed shells is to start with the consideration of the form—a
5. Three way (e) who turned architects‘ attention to the
surface curved in space. advantages of braced domes in which the
elements forming the framework of the
The inherent curvature in a latticed shell will give the structure greater structure are lying on the great circle of a
stiffness. Hence, latticed shells can be built in single layer grids, which is sphere.
a major difference from double layer grid. Of course, latticed shells may
also be built in double layer grids. Although single layer and double layer
latticed shells are similar in shape, the structural analysis and connecting
detail are quite different. The single layer latticed shell is A structural
system with rigid joints, while the double layer latticed shell has hinged
joints. In practice, single layer latticed shells of short span with
lightweight roofing may also be built with hinged joints. The members
and connecting joints in a single layer shell of large span will resist not
only axial forces as in a double layer shell, but also the internal moments
and torsions. Geodesic subdivision
Braced Barrel Vaults
Braced Domes Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shells
The braced barrel vault is composed of member elements arranged on
a cylindrical surface. The basic curve is a circular segment; however, The curves used to form the synclastic shell are The hyperbolic paraboloid or hypar is a
occasionally a parabola, ellipse, or funicular line may also be used. spherical, parabolic, or elliptical covering circular or translational surface formed by sliding a
Figure 13.12 shows the typical arrangement of a braced barrel vault. Its polygonal areas. Out of a large variety of possible types concave paraboloid, called a generatrix,
structural behavior depends mainly on the type and location of of braced domes, only four or five types proved to be parallel to itself along a convex parabola,
supports, which can be expressed as L/R, where L is the distance frequently used in practiceThey are shown in Figure called a directrix, which is perpendicular to
between the supports in longitudinal direction and R is the radius of . the generatrix (Figure 13.16a). By cutting
curvature of the transverse curve. the surface vertically, parabolas can be
obtained and by cutting horizontally
hyperbolas can be obtained. Such surfaces
can also be formed by sliding a straight
line along two other straight lines
skewed with respect to each other
(Figure 13.16b).
Braced barrel vaults.
There are several possible types of bracing that have been used in
the construction of single layer braced barrel vaults. Figure 13.13
shows five principle types:
 Intersection and Combination
The basic forms of latticed shells are single-curvature
cylinders, double-curvature spheres, and hyperbolic
paraboloids. Many interesting new shapes can be
generated by intersecting and combining these basic
forms. The art of intersection and combination is one of
the important tools in the design of latticed shells.
Intersection and combination of cylindrical shells.
For spherical shells, segments of the surface are used to cover
planes other than circular, such as triangular, square, and
polygonal
It is usual to combine a segment of a cylindrical
shell with hemispherical shells at two ends as
shown in Figure 13.19.
Proprietary System
Some of the most successful prefabricated jointing systems are
summarized in Table 13.9. This is followed by a further
description of each system.
Jointing Systems
The jointing system is an extremely important part
of a space frame design. An effective solution of
this problem may be said to be fundamental to
successful design and construction. The type of
jointing depends primarily on the connecting
technique, whether it is bolting, welding, or
applying special mechanical connectors. It is also
affected by the shape of the members. This usually
involves a different connecting technique Mero system
depending on whether the members are circular or
square hollow sections or rolled steel sections.
All connectors can be divided into two main
categories: the purpose-made joint and the
proprietary joint used in the industrialized system
of construction. The purpose-made joints are
usually used for long span structures where the
application of standard proprietary joints is limited.
An example of such types of joints is the cruciform Space deck Triodetic Unistrut system
gusset plate for connecting rolled steel sections as system.
shown in Figure
Unibat system Nodus system
Connecting joint with cruciform gusset plate
 Bearing Joints
Space frames are supported on columns or ring beams
through bearing joints. These joints should posses
enough strength and stiffness to transmit the reactions at
the support safely. Under the vertical loading, bearing
joints are usually under compression. In some double
layer grids with diagonal layout, bearing joints at
corners may resist tension. In latticed shells, both
vertical and horizontal reactions are acting on the
bearing joints.
CASE STUDY
30St Mary Axe Tower
The Swiss Re building, later rebranded 30St Mary Axe, is a 40-storey
office tower. It is 180 m tall and consists of 33 floors, with the external
diameter of 56.15 m on the largest floor.
The main issue in assembling the grid-shell structure for 30St Mary Axe was
that it depended on accurate fabrication.81 ―With a triangular grid, there‘s
nothing you can do if all goes wrong.‖82 The entire tower structure was
designed for bolted assembly to eliminate the need for welding. Bolted
assembly reduced the potential of weld-induced defects and the need for
adjusting connections post-welding. On the other hand, bolted assembly
caused certain difficulties. For example, it entailed a step of forming a
horizontal hoop, when all 18 nodes were in place around the circumference,
and tie-sections were added to link the nodes.

The Heydar Aliyev Center Hall of Nations

The Heydar Aliyev Center
The space frame enables the construction of this free
from structure while offering significant savings in time
thought out the construction process. The surface
geometry driven by the architecture, dictates the need to
pursue unconventional structural solutions; the
introduction of curved ‗Boot Columns‘ to achieve the
inverse peel of the surface from the ground at the west,
and the cantilever beams ‗dovetails‘ tapering towards the
free end supporting building envelop at the east.
The Heydar Aliyev Center, with 57,519
m2 built, is a complex of buildings
designed by British Iraqi architect Zaha
Hadid,
structure of two layers, is the main
support of the double jacket which are
smoothly curved along the top and
bottom of the outer casing, the
structural frame and concealing
emphasizing the surface rather
structure , as if the building was all
effect and not cause. Represents a fluid
form that emerges by the folding of the
natural topography of the landscape
and the wrapping of individual
functions within.
This complex of exhibition halls for the
1972 International Trade Fair was
planned, designed and constructed in 22
months. Its large-span cast-in-situ
concrete space frames were the first of
their kind to be built in the world.
The nodes are a crucial element for this
large span 73mx73m space-frame structure
with cast-on-site concrete as they transfer
different tensile and compressive loads
from the many members that converge on
it.
Conclusion
The flexibility and rigidity of space frame structure are immensely
growing and in coming days will soon captivate the markets.
Its aesthetics and design outlook makes it a worthy option.