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‫ﻇﺰري‬

‫ﺗﻜﺎﻓﺆات اﻟﻘﻀﺎﻳﺎ‬
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5 ‫ أﺳﻤﻬﺎن ﺧﻀﻮر‬.‫د‬

30/10/2019 ‫الﺔﺊر الﺳام‬

‫ﹰ‬
:‫إن 𝑝𝑝¬ ⟶ 𝑞𝑞¬ ﺧﺎﻃﺌﺔ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮن‬, ‫ إن 𝑞𝑞 ⟶ 𝑝𝑝 و 𝑝𝑝¬ ⟶ 𝑞𝑞¬ ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻓﺌﺘﺎن ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺎ‬:‫ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ‬
¬𝑞𝑞: 𝑇𝑇 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞: 𝐹𝐹
¬𝑝𝑝: 𝐹𝐹 ⟶ 𝑝𝑝: 𝐹𝐹
:‫ﺃﻭ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ‬

𝒑𝒑 𝒒𝒒 ¬𝒑𝒑 ¬𝒒𝒒 𝒑𝒑 ⟶ 𝒒𝒒 ¬𝒒𝒒 ⟶ ¬𝒑𝒑

T T F F T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
‫𝑞𝑞 ⟶ 𝑝𝑝 ﻟﻬﻤﺎ ﻧﻔﺲ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﻓﻬﻤﺎ ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻓﺌﺘﺎﻥ‬, ¬𝑞𝑞 ⟶ ¬𝑝𝑝 ‫ﻧﻼﺣﻆ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻮﺩﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﺎﺩﺱ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺘﻴﻦ‬
:‫ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺎﹰ ﻓﻨﻜﺘﺒﻬﺎ‬
𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑞𝑞 ⟶ ¬𝑝𝑝

EX: What are the contra positive, converse and inverse of the following
statement?
“the home team wins whenever it’s raining,

:‫𝑤𝑤 𝑞𝑞( ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﺒﺎﺭﺓ ﺗﻜﺘﺐ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﻠﻲ‬ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝) ‫ﺇﻥ ﺃﺣﺪ ﺍﻻﺷﻜﺎﻝ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ 𝑞𝑞 ⟶ 𝑝𝑝 ﻫﻮ‬

“if it is raining, then the home team wins”

its contra positive ⇒ ”If the home team doesn’t win, then it isn’t raining”
its converse is ⇒ “if the home team wins, then it’s raining”
its inverse ⇒ “if it’s not raining, then the home team doesn’t win”

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 ‫تﺿاﺸﺂات الﺼﺪاﻏا | د‪ .‬أﺠمﻋان خﺪﻌر‬

‫الﺤرط ﺐﻈائﻎ الﺔاﻇﺈ‪:‬‬

‫𝑝𝑝“ ‪DEF: let 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞 be proposition, the biconditional statement “𝑝𝑝 ⟷ 𝑞𝑞 ” is proposition‬‬
‫‪if and only if 𝑞𝑞” and this statement is true when both 𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑞𝑞 have the same truth‬‬
‫‪value ,and is false other wise.‬‬
‫‪ ‬ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﻀﻴﺔ 𝑞𝑞 ⟷ 𝑝𝑝‬
‫)𝑞𝑞 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞( ∧ )𝑞𝑞 ⟶ 𝑝𝑝( ≡ 𝑞𝑞 ⟷ 𝑝𝑝‬
‫𝒑𝒑‬ ‫𝒒𝒒‬ ‫𝒒𝒒 ⟷ 𝒑𝒑‬ ‫ﺃﺣﺪ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻕ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ 𝑞𝑞 ⟶ 𝑝𝑝 ﻫﻮ‪:‬‬
‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫”𝑞𝑞 ‪“𝑝𝑝 is necessary and sufficient for‬‬
‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫"𝑞𝑞 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑝𝑝"‬
‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬
‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪ ‬ﺑﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﺃﺧﺮ‪:‬‬
‫)𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞( ∧ )𝑞𝑞 ⟶ 𝑝𝑝( ≡ 𝑞𝑞 ⟷ 𝑝𝑝‬
‫ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ 𝑞𝑞 ⟷ 𝑝𝑝 ﺻﺤﻴﺤﺔ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺘﻴﻦ 𝑝𝑝 → 𝑞𝑞 ‪ 𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞 ,‬ﺻﺤﻴﺤﺘﻴﻦ‬
‫‪ ‬ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﻋﺪﺓ ﻃﺮﻕ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ 𝑞𝑞 ⟷ 𝑝𝑝 ‪:‬‬
‫”𝑞𝑞 ‪“𝑝𝑝 is necessary and snffiient for‬‬
‫”𝑞𝑞 ‪“𝑝𝑝 iff‬‬

‫ﻧﻈﺮﻳﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻃﻴﺔ 𝑞𝑞 ⟶ 𝑝𝑝 ﻭﻋﻜﺴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻔﻲ 𝑝𝑝¬ ⟶ 𝑞𝑞¬ ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻓﺌﺎﻥ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺎﹰ‪.‬‬

‫تﺿاﺸﺂات الﺼﺪاﻏا‪:‬‬

‫ﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﻧﻤﻂ ﻫﺎﻡ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ ﻭﻫﻮ ﺍﺳﺘﺒﺪﺍﻝ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﺑﺠﻤﻠﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻧﻔﺲ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﻭﻟﻬﺬﺍ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻄﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﺘﺞ ﻗﻀﺎﻳﺎ ﺑﻨﻔﺲ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﻛﻘﻀﺎﻳﺎ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺔ ﻣﻌﻄﺎﺓ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ ﺑﻔﻌﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻨﺎء ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻗﺸﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺿﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺔ‪:‬‬

‫ﻫﻲ ﻗﻀﻴﺔ ﺟﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﻧﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻀﻴﺔ ﺑﺴﻴﻄﺔ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﺑﺮﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬ﻓﻴﻤﺎ ﻳﻠﻲ ﺳﻨﺒﺪﺃ ﻧﻘﺎﺷﻨﺎ ﺑﺘﺼﻨﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺔ ﻃﺒﻘﺎ ﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻜﻨﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬ﺗﻌﺮﻳﻒ‪ :‬ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺩﻭﻣﺎﹰ ﺻﺤﻴﺤﺔ ﻻ ﻳﻬﻢ ﻣﺎﻫﻲ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺑﺪﺍﺧﻠﻬﺎ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ‬
‫ﺍﺳﺘﺪﻻﻝ )‪(a catalogy‬‬
‫ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺩﺍﺋﻤﺎﹰ ﺧﺎﻃﺌﺔ ﻻ ﻳﻬﻢ ﻣﺎﻫﻲ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﻀﺎﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺔ ﻟﻬﺎ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺗﻨﺎﻗﺾ ) ‪a‬‬
‫‪(contradiction‬‬

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‫ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﺍﺳﺘﺪﻻﻝ ﻭﻻ ﺗﻨﺎﻗﺾ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ )‪(contingency‬‬

‫‪ ‬ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ‪ :‬ﺑﺈﻣﻜﺎﻧﻨﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺒﻨﻲ ﺍﺳﺘﺪﻻﻻﺕ ﻭﺗﻨﺎﻗﻀﺎﺕ ﻣﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻴﻦ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻗﻀﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺓ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ 𝑝𝑝 ﻧﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺒﻨﻲ 𝑝𝑝¬ ﻭﺃﻳﻀﺎﹰ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑝𝑝¬ ﻭﺃﻳﻀﺎﹰ ﻧﺴﺘﻄﻴﻊ ﺃﻥ ﻧﺒﻨﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ 𝑝𝑝¬ ∧ 𝑝𝑝 ﻭﻛﻤﺎ ﻳﻮﺿﺢ‬
‫ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‪:‬‬
‫𝒑𝒑‬ ‫𝒑𝒑¬‬ ‫𝒑𝒑¬ ∧ 𝒑𝒑 𝒑𝒑 ∨ 𝒑𝒑¬‬
‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬
‫ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑝𝑝¬ ﺩﻭﻣﺎﹰ ﺻﺤﻴﺤﺔ ﻓﻬﻲ ﺍﺳﺘﺪﻻﻝ‪ ,‬ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ 𝑝𝑝¬ ∧ 𝑝𝑝‬
‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬
‫ﺩﻭﻣﺎﹰ ﺧﺎﻃﺌﺔ ﻓﻬﻲ ﺗﻨﺎﻗﺾ‬
‫‪Demorgan’s laws for logic:‬‬
‫𝑞𝑞¬ ∨ 𝑝𝑝¬ ≡ )𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑝𝑝(¬‬
‫𝑞𝑞¬ ∧ 𝑝𝑝¬ ≡ )𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑝𝑝(¬‬

‫الﺎﺿاﺸﺂات المﻈطﺼﻐﺋ‪:‬‬

‫‪ ‬ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﺎﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻧﻔﺲ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻛﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻻﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻜﻨﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﻗﻀﺎﻳﺎ ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻓﺌﺔ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺎﹰ‪ ,‬ﺃﻱ‬
‫ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺘﺎﻥ 𝑞𝑞 ‪ 𝑝𝑝,‬ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻓﺌﺘﺎﻥ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺎﹰ ‪,‬ﺇﺫﺍ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻃﻴﺔ 𝑞𝑞 ⟷ 𝑝𝑝 ﺍﺳﺘﺪﻻﻝ ﻭﻧﻜﺘﺐ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ 𝑝𝑝‪.‬‬

‫‪ ‬ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ ≡ ﻻ ﻳﻤﺜﻞ ﺭﺍﺑﻂ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ 𝑝𝑝 ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﻗﻀﻴﺔ ﻣﺮﻛﺒﺔ ﺇﻧﻤﺎ ﺗﻌﻨﻲ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻃﻴﺔ 𝑞𝑞 ⟷ 𝑝𝑝‬
‫ﺍﺳﺘﺪﻻﻝ‪.‬‬

‫ﺗﻤﺮﻳﻦ‪:‬‬

‫ﺑﻴﻦ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺘﺎﻥ ﺍﻵﺗﻴﺘﺎﻥ )𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑝𝑝(¬ ﻭ 𝑞𝑞¬ ∧ 𝑝𝑝¬ ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻓﺌﺘﺎﻥ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﻴﺎﹰ ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﻞ‪:‬‬
‫ﻧﺸﻜﻞ ﺟﺪﻭﻝ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﻀﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺘﻴﻦ‪:‬‬

‫𝒑𝒑‬ ‫𝒒𝒒‬ ‫𝒒𝒒 ∨ 𝒑𝒑‬ ‫)𝒒𝒒 ∨ 𝒑𝒑(¬‬ ‫𝒑𝒑¬‬ ‫𝒒𝒒¬‬ ‫𝒒𝒒¬ ∧ 𝒑𝒑¬‬
‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬
‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬
‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬
‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪F‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬ ‫‪T‬‬

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‫‪ ‬ﻭﺳﺒﺐ ﺃﻥ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﻀﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺘﻴﻦ )𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑝𝑝(¬ ﻭ 𝑞𝑞¬ ∧ 𝑝𝑝¬ ﺗﺘﻔﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺟﻞ ﻛﻞ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺍﻛﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻤﻤﻜﻨﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻴﻘﺔ ﻟـ𝑞𝑞 ‪ 𝑝𝑝,‬ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻃﻴﺔ 𝑞𝑞¬ ∧ 𝑝𝑝¬ ⟷ )𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑝𝑝(¬ ﺍﺳﺘﺪﻻﻝ ‪,‬ﺃﻱ ﺃﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻀﻴﺘﻴﻦ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻓﺌﺘﻴﻦ 𝑞𝑞¬ ∧ 𝑝𝑝¬ ≡ )𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑝𝑝(¬‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻮﺩ ‪ 6‬ﻳﺤﻮﻱ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﻓﺆﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﻤﺔ ﻓﻔﻲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﻓﺆﺍﺕ ﺇﻥ ﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ ‪ T‬ﻳﺸﻴﺮ ﻟﻠﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ‬
‫ﺩﻭﻣﺎﹰ ﺻﺤﻴﺤﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺮﻣﺰ ‪ F‬ﻳﺸﻴﺮ ﻟﻠﻘﻀﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﻛﺒﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺧﺎﻃﺌﺔ ﺩﻭﻣﺎﹰ‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻤﻮﺩ ‪ 7,8‬ﻳﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﻓﺆﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﻤﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﻀﺎﻳﺎ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻃﻴﺔ ﺃﺣﺎﺩﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﻭﺛﻨﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ‪.‬‬

‫بﺳﺨ الﺼﺪاﻏا المرﺾﺊﺋ )لﻂﺗفﺮ(‪:‬‬

‫𝑝𝑝 = 𝑇𝑇 ∧ 𝑝𝑝‬ ‫•‬
‫𝑝𝑝 = 𝐹𝐹 ∨ 𝑝𝑝‬ ‫•‬
‫𝑝𝑝 ≡ )𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑝𝑝( ∨ 𝑝𝑝‬ ‫•‬
‫𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑝𝑝¬ ≡ 𝑞𝑞 ⟶ 𝑝𝑝‬ ‫•‬

‫خﻌاص الﺼﺪاﻏا‬

‫‪Equivalence‬‬ ‫‪Name‬‬
‫𝑝𝑝 ≡ 𝑇𝑇 ∧ 𝑝𝑝‬ ‫‪Idenntity laws‬‬
‫𝑝𝑝 ≡ 𝐹𝐹 ∨ 𝑝𝑝‬
‫𝑇𝑇 ≡ 𝑇𝑇 ∨ 𝑝𝑝‬ ‫‪Domination lows‬‬
‫𝐹𝐹 ≡ 𝐹𝐹 ∧ 𝑝𝑝‬
‫𝑝𝑝 ≡ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑝𝑝‬ ‫‪Idempotrt law‬‬
‫𝑝𝑝 ≡ 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑝𝑝‬
‫𝑝𝑝 ≡ )𝑝𝑝¬(¬‬ ‫‪Double neyation law‬‬
‫𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑝𝑝‬ ‫‪Commutative laws‬‬
‫𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ 𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑝𝑝‬
‫)𝑟𝑟 ∨ 𝑞𝑞( ∨ 𝑝𝑝 ≡ 𝑟𝑟 ∨ )𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑝𝑝(‬ ‫‪Associative laws‬‬
‫)𝑟𝑟 ∧ 𝑞𝑞( ∧ 𝑝𝑝 ≡ 𝑟𝑟 ∧ )𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑝𝑝(‬
‫)𝑟𝑟 ∨ 𝑝𝑝( ∧ )𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑝𝑝( ≡ )𝑟𝑟 ∧ 𝑞𝑞( ∨ 𝑝𝑝‬ ‫‪Pistrbutive laws‬‬
‫)𝑟𝑟 ∧ 𝑝𝑝( ∨ )𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑝𝑝( ≡ )𝑟𝑟 ∨ 𝑞𝑞( ∧ 𝑝𝑝‬
‫𝑞𝑞¬ ∨ 𝑝𝑝¬ ≡ )𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑝𝑝(¬‬ ‫‪Demorgan’s laws‬‬
‫𝑞𝑞¬ ∧ 𝑝𝑝¬ ≡ )𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑝𝑝(¬‬
‫𝑝𝑝 ≡ )𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑝𝑝( ∨ 𝑝𝑝‬ ‫‪Absorption laws‬‬
‫𝑝𝑝 ≡ )𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑝𝑝( ∧ 𝑝𝑝‬
‫𝑝𝑝 ≡ 𝑝𝑝¬ ∨ 𝑝𝑝‬ ‫‪Negation laws‬‬
‫𝐹𝐹 ≡ 𝑝𝑝¬ ∧ 𝑝𝑝‬

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 ‫ أﺠمﻋان خﺪﻌر‬.‫تﺿاﺸﺂات الﺼﺪاﻏا | د‬

Imgirel equivalenca involving conditional Table 8 logical equivalencos cnvolving

statements biconditionals

𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 𝒑𝒑 ⟷ 𝒒𝒒 ≡ (𝒑𝒑 ⟶ 𝒒𝒒) ∧ (𝒒𝒒 ⟶ 𝒑𝒑)

𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑞𝑞 ⟶ ¬𝑝𝑝 𝒑𝒑 ⟷ 𝒒𝒒 ≡ ¬𝒑𝒑 ⟷ ¬𝒒𝒒
𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞 𝒑𝒑 ⟷ 𝒒𝒒 ≡ (𝒑𝒑 ∧ 𝒒𝒒) ∨ (¬𝒑𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒒𝒒)
𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ ¬𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞 ¬(𝒑𝒑 ⟷ 𝒒𝒒) ≡ 𝒑𝒑 ⟷ ¬𝒒𝒒
𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 ≡ ¬(𝑝𝑝 ⟶ ¬𝑞𝑞)
¬(𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞) ≡ 𝑝𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞𝑞
(𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞 ) ∧ (𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑟𝑟) ≡ 𝑝𝑝 ⟶ (𝑞𝑞 ∧ 𝑟𝑟)
(𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑟𝑟) ∧ (𝑞𝑞 ⟶ 𝑟𝑟) ≡ (𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 ) ⟶ 𝑟𝑟
(𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞 ) ∨ (𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑟𝑟) ≡ 𝑝𝑝 ⟶ (𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑟𝑟)
(𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑟𝑟) ∨ (𝑞𝑞 ⟶ 𝑟𝑟) ≡ (𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞) ⟶ 𝑟𝑟

Name Tautology Name

𝑝𝑝 [𝑝𝑝 ∧ (𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞)] ⟶ 𝑞𝑞 Modus pones
𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞
∴ 𝑞𝑞
¬𝑞𝑞 [¬𝑞𝑞 ∧ (𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞)] ⟶ ¬𝑞𝑞 Modus tolleus
𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞
∴ ¬𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞 [(𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞𝑞) ∧ (𝑞𝑞 ⟶ 𝑟𝑟)] ⟶ (𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑟𝑟) hypothetical syllogism
𝑞𝑞 ⟶ 𝑟𝑟
∴ 𝑝𝑝 ⟶ 𝑟𝑟
𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 [(𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞) ∧ ¬𝑝𝑝] ⟶ 𝑞𝑞 Disjunctive syllogism
¬𝑝𝑝
∴ 𝑞𝑞
𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝 ⟶ (𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞) Addition
∴ 𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞
𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 (𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞) ⟶ 𝑝𝑝 Simplification
∴ 𝑝𝑝
𝑝𝑝 [(𝑝𝑝) ∧ (𝑞𝑞)] ⟶ 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞 Conjunction
𝑞𝑞
∴ 𝑝𝑝 ∧ 𝑞𝑞
𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞 [(𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑞𝑞) ∧ (¬𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑟𝑟)] ⟶ (𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑟𝑟) Resolution
¬𝑝𝑝 ∨ 𝑟𝑟
∴ 𝑞𝑞 ∨ 𝑟𝑟

😍😍 ......‫ﺍﻧﺘﻬﺖ ﺍﳴﺤﺎﺿﺮﺓ‬

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