Flicker: Introduction To Power Quality

Institut für Elektrische Energieversorgung und Hochspannungstechnik
Course
Introduction to Power Quality

4. Flicker
Dr.-Ing. Jan Meyer

Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Gert Winkler
08/2018
Gliederung
4.1 Basics and definitions

4.2 Measurement and assessment indices
4.3 Calculation methods
4.4 Superposition of multiple source
4.5 Propagation in the network
4.6 Relevant standards
4.7 Mitigation
4. Flicker
Course „Introduction to Power Quality“ 1
1
General effect chain

Voltage r.m.s [V]
Time [s]
(Incandescent)
Grid Lamp Eye Brain
Voltage Luminous flux Luminous density Perception

fluctuation fluctuation fluctuation fluctuation
• Different characteristic of new lighting technologies based on electronic

ballast (compatc flourescent lamps, LED-lamps)
-> New lamps must not be more sensitive than the incandescent lamp
4. Flicker

Definition and perceptibility curve

• Flicker
impression of unsteadiness of visual sensation induced by a light
stimulus whose luminance or spectral distribution fluctuates with
time (IEV 161-08-13).
Perceptibility threshold for

f = 8.8Hz
periodic rectangular (1) and
ΔU = 0.45 V 1) sinusoidal (2) voltage
d = 0.196 % fluctuations
Minimum
rectangular Impact factors:
• waveshape
• Magnitude of voltage
changes
• Frequency of voltage
changes
Source: Mombauer, W.
1) Für U = 230V
4. Flicker
2
Definitions (2)
• Repetition rate
Number of voltage changes N within the observation time T in
minutes
Note: Two consecutive voltage changes with an time distance below 40 ms

are counted as a single voltage change. Ramp-wise voltage change
characteristics with an rise and/or fall time below 1 s are excluded.
N
r=
T
• Two changes per cycle:

r min −1
f s −1 =
60 ⋅ 2
• Example:
r = 120min −1 → f = 1Hz
4. Flicker

Definitions (3)
• Flicker perceptibility
the minimum value of a fluctuation of luminance or of spectral
distribution which gives rise to a flicker perceptible to a specified
sample of the population
• Flicker irritability
the maximum value of a fluctuation of luminance or of spectral
distribution which gives rise to a flicker tolerated without discomfort
by a specified sample of the population
• Short term flicker indicator Pst

a measure of flicker evaluated over a specified time interval of a
relatively short duration
• Long term flicker indicator Plt

a measure of flicker evaluated over a specified time interval of a
relatively long duration, using successive values of the short-term
flicker indicator
4. Flicker
3
Irritability curve (Flicker curve for Pst = 1)
Applies only for periodic

rectangular voltage fluctuations
d in %
Perceptibility curve
Pst ≈ 0.7
4. Flicker
Gliederung

4.7 Mitigation
4. Flicker
4
Flickermeter - Overview
• Block 1: Input voltage adaptor

Adaption to internal reference level of the instrument
• Block 2: Squaring demodulator
Model of the lamp characteristic
• Block 3: Bandpass- and Weighting filter
Model of the human perception mechanism
• Block 4: Squaring und Smoothing (low pass filter)
Model of the memory effect of the brain
Determination of instantaneous flicker sensation Pinst
• Block 5: Statistical analysis
Determination of short-term flicker indicator Pst
4. Flicker

Flickermeter – Detail Block 3
• Suppression of all
irrelevant signal
components
• Model of the sensitivity
of the eye
IEC 61000-4-15
4. Flicker
5
Flickermeter – Detail Block 4
• Model of the perception by the brain

• Modelling of the „memory“effect
• Output corresponds to the
momentary flicker impression
• Pinst = 1 corresponds to
perceptibility threshold
IEC 61000-4-15
4. Flicker

Flickermeter – Detail Block 5 (1)
1. Sampling of the instantenous 2. Determination of the

flicker sensation (Pinst) and frequency per class
classification
(min. 64 classes)
64 64
63 63
62 62
Klasse Flickereindruck
61 61
60 60
59 59
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
58 58
57 57
≈ ≈
2 2
1 1
0 0
TM TM
4. Flicker
6

3. Determination of cumulative 4. Calculation of 5 relevant percentiles Pi
distribution function as
P0.1, P1, P3 , P10 , P50
probability exceeding curve
100%
Probability of exceedance
Probability of exceedance
50%
0
0 1 2 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
Class (flicker sensation) P50 P10 P3 P1 P0.1
Note: Present measurement instruments usually use logarithmic classifiers.

4. Flicker

5. Calculation of Short-term flicker indicator for a specified time interval

by weighting the percentiles by different coefficients
Pst = 0.0314 ⋅ P0.1s + 0.0525 ⋅ P1s + 0.0657 ⋅ P3 s + 0.28 ⋅ P10 s + 0.08 ⋅ P50 s
For all values of the irritability curve applies:

Pst = 1
Improvement of results by determining percentiles based on additional

(neighbouring) percentiles
P0.1s = P0.1 P10 s = (P6 + P8 +P10 + P13 + P17 ) / 5
P1s = (P0.7 + P1 + P1.5 ) / 3 P50 s = (P30 + P50 + P80 ) / 3
P3s = (P2.2 + P3 +P4 ) / 3
4. Flicker
7
Assessment indices (1)

• Short term flicker severity
− Indicator: Short term flicker indicator Pst
− Observation time: 1 min, 10 min
− Assessment of disturbance of individual devices with short
operation times
-> Application in prduct standards
− Perceptibility threshold corresponds to Pst ≈ 0.7
• Long term flicker severity

− Indicator: Long term flicker indicator Plt 12 P3
− Observation time: 2 h Plt = 3 st n
12

− Calculation from twelve 10-minute-values of n=1
short term flicker indicator
− Assessment of the disturbance caused by multiple devices and
installations for longer operation times
-> Beurteilung der Spannungsqualität
− Note: Customer complaints usually result from light intensity
fluctuations for longer time intervals
4. Flicker

Bewertungsgrößen (2)
• Flicker after effect time tf
Paramter with dimension of time, whihc quantifies the duration of
the after effect of a voltage change characteristic
(„Memory time“ of the brain for a voltage change characteristic)
For all pairs of values of the irritability curve (Pst=1) applies:
Tp 60 s
tf = =
r min −1 r min −1
Flicker is annoying (above the irritability threshold), if the

sum of after effect times exceeds the observation time Tp
Generalization of the application of the irritability curve to

rectangular voltage fluctuations with non-periodic time
intervals and variating magnitude.
4. Flicker
8
Flicker after effect time - Example
d(t)
d3
d2 t1 = 4 s d1 = −1.0%
d1 t2 = 1s d2 = +1.7%
t3 = 2.5 s d3 = −0.7%
t1 t2 t3
Tp = 60 s one time continuous

(1 per minute) (8 per minute)
t f 1 = 2.3 s
t f = tf 1 + tf 2 + tf 3 t f (
= 8 ⋅ tf 1 + tf 2 + tf 3 )
t f 2 = 12.7 s = 15.6 s < 60 s = 124.8 s > 60 s
t f 3 = 0.55 s
No disturbance Disturbance
4. Flicker
Gliederung

4.7 Mitigation
4. Flicker
9
Options for determining the flicker indicators

• Direct measurement
− Only possible in existing installations
− Measurement by flickermeter instrument
• Simulation
− Simulation of r.m.s. time characteristic by a network calculation
package (e.g. DigSilent Powerfactory)
− Determination by software implementaiton of flickermeter
• Method based on flicker irritability curve

− Translation based on irritability curve di
− Only for periodic rectangular voltage Pst i = ⋅ Pst ref
d ref
fluctuations with constant magnitude
• Analytical method
− Calculation of flicker indicator for simple non-rectangular voltage
change characteristics (e.g. motor starting)
4. Flicker

Method based on flicker irritability curve (Example)

d in %
di 0.8%
Pst i = ⋅ Pst ref = ⋅ 1 = 0.62
d ref 1.3%
4. Flicker
10
Analytical method - idea

• Line approximation of irritability curve
(almost linear in the range between 0.2 min-1 and 30 min-1)
b
 r   ΔU / U 
Pst = a  w  ⋅   =1
−1
 min   % 
4. Flicker

Analytical method – basic equation

• Determination of paramters a and b based on two value paris of the line
r = 1min−1 d = 2.724 % a = 0.365
r = 22 min−1 d = 1.02 % b = 0.31
• Similar flicker severity for positive and negative voltage changes
0.31
 r  d
Pst = 0.365 ⋅   ⋅
 min−1  %
• Application range:
• 0.2/min-1 < r/min-1 ≤ 30/min-1
• Periodic, rectangular voltage flutuations with constant magnitude
4. Flicker
11
Analytical method – Frequency correction factor

• Extention of application range with respect to repetition rate based on
the introduction of a frequency correction factor R
0.31
 r  d
Pst = 0.365 ⋅ R ⋅   ⋅
 min−1  % Source: Mombauer, W.
4. Flicker

Analytical method – Shape factor (1)

• Extension of application range to voltage change characteristics with
non-rectangular waveshape by introduction of shape factor F
• Equivalent translation of simple voltage change characteristics to a
rectangular voltage change
− Triangular shapes
(e.g. motor starting)
− stepped rectanguar or trapezoidal shapes
(e.g. welding machines)
− ramp-wise or pulsed shapes
(e.g. electronic controlled devices)
F⋅d
0.31
 r  d
Pst = 0.365 ⋅ F ⋅ R ⋅   ⋅
 min−1  %
4. Flicker
12

• Shape factor characteristic for triangular voltage change characteristics
T f = 50 ms
F
100 ms
20 ms
200 ms
400 ms
10 ms
Tf Tt
ms
Tt
4. Flicker


• Shape factor characteristic for sinusoidal voltage fluctuations
• Significant lower short-term severity for sinusoidal compared to

rectangular voltage fluctuations at low repetition rates Source: Mombauer, W.
4. Flicker
13

• Shape factor characteristic for step-wise and ramp-wise voltage change
characteristics
d max T
d max T
T
d max
T
d max
ms
T
4. Flicker
Gliederung

4.7 Mitigation
4. Flicker
14
4.4 Superposition of multiple sources
Overview
General summation
law
m Exponent α depends on
Pst = α
P
i=1
α
st i the characteristic of the
flicker sources
Continuous Single discret

voltage fluctuations events
independent dependent independent dependent
unsynchronized synchronized Time difference between two

(random) sources consecutive events ...
sources
longer than 1s shorter than 1s
4. Flicker

Continuous voltage fluctuations (1)

• Independent flicker sources
− Summation: α = 2.0
(determination of sum of two individual sources)
− Subtraction: α = 3.0
(determination of an individual source based on total level and other
individual sources)
• Dependent flicker sources
− High probability of coincidence: α = 1.0
− Flicker simulation is recommended
Example for independent sources:

− Flicker by three thermostat controlled electric heaters
(each operates independent from each other)
Pst1 = 0.42
Pst ges = 2 Pst2 1 + Pst2 2 + Pst2 3
Pst 2 = 0.36
= 0.625
Pst 3 = 0.29
4. Flicker
15
Continuous voltage fluctuations (2)

Example for dependent sources:
− Two presses generate periodic rectangular voltage changes with
r = 20/min and d = 0.7%
Determination of Pst for each press based on irritability curve method:
r = 20 ⋅ min−1 → dref = 1.1 %; Pst ref = 1
d 0.7 %
Pst = ⋅ Pst ref = ⋅ 1 = 0.636
d ref 1.1 %
Operation mode 1 Operation mode 2

Same cycles opposite cycles
(arithmetic addition) (exact compensation)
Pst ges = 2 ⋅ Pst i 1 Pst ges ≈ 0

= 1.273 2
ges
(α = 1.0)
4. Flicker

Discret events
• Independent events
− Exponent α depends for a observation interval of Tp = 10 min only
from the number of eventsab
 Tp = 10 min:
N α10
2 1.4 ln (N10 )
3 1.8 α10 =
0.31 ⋅ ln (N10 ) + 0.281
4 1.9
5 2.0
 Note: For Tp = 1 min α1 = 3.2 can be used

independent on the number of events.
• Dependent events
− Determination based on flicker simulation
4. Flicker
16
Discret events– Example (1)

• Two individual motor starts (e.g. at the begin of a shift) within a
10 minute interval
d (t)
t1 t2 >1s
t
0.31
t1 = 20ms  r  d
F = 0.92 Pst = 0.365 ⋅ F ⋅ R ⋅  −1 
⋅
t2 = 200ms  min  %
R =1
d = −1.7% = 0.365 ⋅ 0.92 ⋅ 0.76 ⋅ ( 0.2 )
0.31
⋅ −1.7
r = 0.2min−1 = 0.35
(2 changes
in 10 min) Applicable only in case of similar voltage changes
(voltage change characteristics) !
4. Flicker

Discret events– Example (2)

• Calculation based on individual events
Pst 1 = 0.213 Pst 2 = 0.213

d(t)
t1 t2 >1s
t
N=2 Pst = 1.4 P1.4
st1 +P 1.4
st 2
1.4
= 2 ⋅ Pst i = 1.641 ⋅ 0.213
= 0.35
α10 = 1.4
Also applicable for events with different
voltage change characteristics !
4. Flicker
17
Gliederung

4.7 Mitigation
4. Flicker

Definitions
• Flicker and voltage changes propagate upstream and downstream
• Flikcer transfer coefficient T

The transfer from a point x to a point y is defined as:
Pst y TPst xy > 1 increase (amplification)
TPst xy = TPst xy = 1 no influence
Pst x
TPst xy < 1 reduction (damping)
d1 d2 d3
Pst,1 Pst,2 Pst,3
Z01 1 Z12 2 Z23 3 Pst 1
TPst 21 =
Pst 2
U0
Pst 2
Flicker TPst 12 =
source Pst 1
4. Flicker
18
Upstream transfer (general)
SkV 2 SkV 2
Pst 1 = Pst 2 ⋅ TPst 21 = Pst 1 = Pst 2 ⋅ TPst 21
SkV 1 SkV 1
• Reduction of flicker severity and magnitude of voltage change in the

direction of increasing short circuit power
4. Flicker

Upstream transfer (Impact of short circuit ratio)

ZT
U0 1 2 3
ZkV Z23
SkV 1
SkV 2 ZA
Direction of
propagation
I Flicker
source
Pst 1 Pst 2
U1 U2
U1 U2
SkV 2 TPst 21 ≈ 0
Pst 1 = Pst 2 ⋅ SkV 1  SkV 2
SkV 1 Pst 1 ≈ 0
• Short circuit ratio between voltage levels usually higher than 5

-> Flicker severity is reduced to less than 20% (often even more)
4. Flicker
19
Upstream transfer (Impact of X/R ratio)

1 Z12 2 Z23 3
SkV 1 SkV 2 SkV 3

Direction of Direction of ZA
propagation propagation
I Flicker
source
Pst,1 Pst,2 Pst,3
U1 U2 U3
U1 U2 U3
Similar X/R-ratio Different X/R-ratio
Z12 und Z23 → X R = 2 U1 Z12 → X R  1 Z23 → X R  1
U1
U2
U3
U3
IA IA
U2
• Additional impact of cosϕ of the load change
4. Flicker

Downstream transfer with passive devices
Pst 2 ≈ Pst 1 TPst 12 ≈ 1
• No or low damping
-> Flicker sources at higher voltage levels (e.g. in MS network)
propagate to large areas (e.g. all doewnstream LV networks) and
requires very careful planning and limitation of emission
4. Flicker
20
Downstream transfer with active devices
1
TPst12 =
SL akt
1+
SkV 2
• „Active“ devices contribute to short-circuit power

(e.g. direct connected motors/generators)
4. Flicker

Downstream transfer between voltage levels
• Indicative values:
TPst HS −MS ≈ 0.8
TPst MS −NS ≈ 1.0
4. Flicker
21
Calculation example
• Upstream transfer (flicker source in LV network)
SkV 600 MVA 130.5 MVA 57.5 MVA 8.98 MVA 2.13 MVA
TVx 0.004 0.016 0.04 0.24
Pst x 0.004 0.016 0.04 0.24 1.0
4. Flicker

Measurement example
• Upstream transfer at a HV/MV transformer
Ur p Ur t / Ur s = 110kV / 6.3kV / 20kV

Sr = 25 MVA
SkV MS = 148MVA
uk = 11.9%
ur = 0.57% SkV HS = 2.677 GVA TPst12 ≈ 0.06
• Measured r.m.s. characteristics of a switching event on tertiary side

Current Voltage Voltage
tertiary side tertiary side primary side
800 3,60 67
600 3,55 66
Uter / kV →
Upri / kV →
Iter / A →
400 3,50 65
200 3,45 64
0 3,40 63
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0 0,1 0,2 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
t/s→ t/s→ t/s→
4. Flicker
22
Gliederung

4.7 Mitigation
4. Flicker

Standards for flicker in LV grids (1)

Compatibility levels:
• Short term flicker severity: Pst = 1
• Long term flicker severity: Plt = 0.8
• No specifications for industrial grids
(Lighting installations must be connected to a PCC complying with
class 2 , which equals to the compatibility levels for public networks)
Product quality acc. to EN 50160 (Ed.3):

• Long term flicker severity: Plt = 1
Binding is always the

presently active
standard !
4. Flicker
23
Standards for flicker in LV grids (2)

Emission limits:
• Equipment up to 16A rated current: IEC 61000-3-3
• Equipment up to 75A rated current : IEC 61000-3-11
• Large installations:
o Individual determination of emission limits:
1. Determination of global allowance G for the LV network
2. Allocation of emission limit E (as part of G) to a single
installation based on its share of agreed power on total
capacity of the network
4. Flicker
Gliederung

4.7 Mitigation
4. Flicker
24
4.7 Mitigation
Overview of impact factors
0.31 ∆S A
 r  d
Pst = 0.365 ⋅ F ⋅ R ⋅   ⋅ mit d≈
Sk V
(
⋅ cos ψk V - ϕA )
 min−1  %
• Installation-side impact factors (customer)

− Shape of the voltage change characteristic
− Repetition rate
− Magnitude of power change
(including flicker-relevant phase angle)
• Grid-side impact factors (network operator)

− Short-circuit impedance (Magnitude and phase angle)
4. Flicker
4.7 Mitigation
Grid-side measures – Increase of short circuit power
• Increase of short-circuit power at PCC:

− Reduction of line impedance by installation of parallel lines or
replacement of existing lines by lines with larger diameter
− Use of transformer with lower impedance (increase of rated power
and/or reduction of short circuit voltage)
(only feasible, if PCC is close to transformer busbar)
• Shift of PCC towards higher short-circuit power:

− Shift of PCC to transformer busbar (dedicated line)
− Shift of PCC to higher voltage level
All mitigation measures should be accompanied

by respective network studies !
4. Flicker
25
4.7 Mitigation
Grid-side measures (Measurment example)

• Operation of a customer installation at different network configurations
with different short circuit powers
Normalized time characteristic Cumulative density function
Range 1 Range 2
SkV = SkV 1 SkV = 0.7 ⋅ SkV 1

4. Flicker
4.7 Mitigation
Installation-side measures – Reduction of emission (1)
• Reduction of magnitude of maximum voltage change

(e.g. by seperation of base load and variating load)
• Rotating mass (inertia) to compensate sudden load changes,
spring couplings
• Reduction of rise time of voltage changes
• Division of single voltage changes to different steps
(Analysis by shape factors and simulations)
• Desynchronized starting e.g. of motors
• Use of series inductances
4. Flicker
26
4.7 Mitigation
Installation-side measures – Reduction of emission (2)

• Interlocking to avoid unfavourable superposition
• Change of repetition rate
(less effective than reducing the magnitude as repetition rate
accounts only with root of three)
• Avoidance of pulsed voltage change characteristics with
cycle of T = 64 ms (fF = 7.8 Hz)
Example: Avoidance of current flow of three power cycles for
resistance welding
• Unbalance
Magnitude of voltage change of three phase load is smaller than a
two-phase load with the same power.
If none of the mentioned measures individual or in combination

reduce the flicker emission to the required level, compensation
equipment has to be installed.
4. Flicker
4.7 Mitigation
Principles of compensation
U0
ΔU
kV
A ⋅X
UV
Objective is the
ΔI
minimization of |ΔU|
ΔI
A ⋅R
k V
ΔIA
ΔU ≈ U
Direct compensation
• Compensation of power changes by variable switching of capacitance
Indirect compensation
• Variable switching of inductances in order to complement the power
changes to a almost constant total load
Active filter
• Generation of a variable voltage by power electronics to be superimposed
with the fluctuating supply voltage at the PCC
4. Flicker
27
4.7 Mitigation
Direct compensation (1)

Simplified compensation Exact compensation
ΔU ≈ U = 0 ΔU = 0
U0 U0
ΔI A
ΔI A
ΔU
⋅X
ΔU
X kV
kV
kV
UV
R kV UV ⋅R
⋅
ΔI A ΔI A
ΔIA ΔIA
ΔU ΔPA ΔQ A − QK
=0= Rk V + Xk V Impact factors:
UV UV 2 UV 2
• Active power change
Rk V 1 • Reactive power change
QK = ΔPA + ΔQ A = ΔPA + ΔQ A • Impedance angle
Xk V tanψk V
4. Flicker
4.7 Mitigation
Note:
If the impedance angle of the network changes (e.g. mix of cable and
overhead line) can cause higher flicker levels in the upstream network !
ΔU
ΔU2 ΔU1
Szenario 1 Szenario 2
Z01 = Z12 Z01 = Z12
(R X )Z 01 = (R X )Z12 (R X )Z 01  (R X )Z12
4. Flicker
28
4.7 Mitigation

Scenario 1:
U0
ΔU1 = ΔU2 ≈ 0
(longitudinal component) ΔU
U1 ΔU2
U2
ΔU1
Scenario 2: U0
ΔU1 ≠ 0; ΔU2 ≈ 0
ΔU ΔU2
(longitudinal component)
U1
U2 ΔU1
4. Flicker
29

Flicker: Introduction To Power Quality

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Flicker: Introduction To Power Quality

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Institut für Elektrische Energieversorgung und Hochspannungstechnik

Introduction to Power Quality

Dr.-Ing. Jan Meyer

Institut für Elektrische Energieversorgung und Hochspannungstechnik

4.1 Basics and definitions

General effect chain

Voltage Luminous flux Luminous density Perception

• Different characteristic of new lighting technologies based on electronic

4.1 Basics and definitions

Definition and perceptibility curve

Perceptibility threshold for

Note: Two consecutive voltage changes with an time distance below 40 ms

• Two changes per cycle:

4.1 Basics and definitions

• Short term flicker indicator Pst

• Long term flicker indicator Plt

Irritability curve (Flicker curve for Pst = 1)

Applies only for periodic

Institut für Elektrische Energieversorgung und Hochspannungstechnik

4.1 Basics and definitions

• Block 1: Input voltage adaptor

4.2 Measurement and assessment indices

Flickermeter – Detail Block 3

Flickermeter – Detail Block 4

• Model of the perception by the brain

4.2 Measurement and assessment indices

Flickermeter – Detail Block 5 (1)

1. Sampling of the instantenous 2. Determination of the

Flickermeter – Detail Block 5 (2)

Note: Present measurement instruments usually use logarithmic classifiers.

4.2 Measurement and assessment indices

Flickermeter – Detail Block 5 (3)

5. Calculation of Short-term flicker indicator for a specified time interval

For all values of the irritability curve applies:

Improvement of results by determining percentiles based on additional

Assessment indices (1)

• Long term flicker severity

4.2 Measurement and assessment indices

Flicker is annoying (above the irritability threshold), if the

Generalization of the application of the irritability curve to

Flicker after effect time - Example

Tp = 60 s one time continuous

Institut für Elektrische Energieversorgung und Hochspannungstechnik

4.1 Basics and definitions

Options for determining the flicker indicators

• Method based on flicker irritability curve

4.3 Calculation methods

Method based on flicker irritability curve (Example)

Analytical method - idea

4.3 Calculation methods

Analytical method – basic equation

• Similar flicker severity for positive and negative voltage changes

Analytical method – Frequency correction factor

4.3 Calculation methods

Analytical method – Shape factor (1)

Analytical method – Shape factor (2)

4.3 Calculation methods

Analytical method – Shape factor (3)

• Significant lower short-term severity for sinusoidal compared to

Analytical method – Shape factor (4)

Institut für Elektrische Energieversorgung und Hochspannungstechnik

4.1 Basics and definitions

Continuous Single discret