ETHICS

GES 228

MR.ELVIN
MARIMAR “VINCE” AZARES
FLORENDO, LPT

1
 COURSE ORIENTATIO AND THE IMPORTANCE OF RULES
COMMUNCATION
MODULE 1

OVERVIEW

Everywhere you go are rules – at home, at school, in church, in the barangay. Imagine your life without
rules. Do the rules make our life more difficult? Should it be eliminated? Or do these rules make our life
more peaceful and in order? In this lesson, we’ll study about the importance of rules.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this lesson, learners are able to:
• Define rule.
• Identify the different importance of rules.

LEARNING EXPERIENCES & SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES (SAA)

➢ ABSTRACTION
- Rules are important to social beings. Just imagine the chaos that results from the absence of rules. What happens when
students and professors alike come to school in any attire they want? Imagine what happens when in the classroom
everyone wants to talk at the same time. Let's go out of the classroom for more examples. What if there were no traffic
rules? Rules can be expanded to include the Philippine Constitution and other laws. What if there were no Constitution
and other laws of the land?
- Rules are meant to set order. Rules (the Philippine Constitution and other laws included) are meant for man. The
greatest Teacher, Jesus Christ, preached emphatically, "The Sabbath is made for man and not man for the Sabbath". The
law of the Sabbath, i.e. to keep it holy and observe rest, is meant to make man whole by resting and by giving him time
to thank and spend time in prayer and worship for his own good. For the sake of order in society, everyone is subject to
rules. In a democratic country like the Philippines, we often hear the statement "No one is above the law," including
the highest official of the country, all subject to rules or else court chaos.
- Rules are not meant to restrict your freedom. They are meant to h: you grow in freedom, to grow in your ability to
choose and do what is good for you and for others. If there are rules or laws that restrict your ability or strength to do
good, they are suffocating laws and they are not good laws. They ought to be abolished. Any rule or law that prevents
human persons from doing and being good ought to be repealed. They have no reasons to exist.
- In fact, if you are a rule or a law-abiding citizen, you don't even feel the restricting presence of a rule or law because
you do what the law or what the rule states everybody should do. Looking from a higher point of view, this is the state
when one acts not because rules demand it but because one sees he has to act that way. It is like saying one no longer
needs the rule or law because one has become mature and wise enough to discern what ought to be done. This is an
ideal state which the ancient Chinese sages (Confucius, Lao Tzu) referred to as state of no-more rules, no-more laws,
because people discern what is right or good and do what is right or good without thinking or a rule or law; people are
no longer. In need of a government because they can govern themselves. It is a state where One owns the moral
standard not just abide by the moral standard.

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 SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES (SAA) SHEET
Direction: Read and answer the following questions.
1. Given the following rules/laws that are made for the good man. State at least one good result that is derived from
the following actions.
a. No ID, No Entry
b. Student/Teacher tardiness beyond 15minutes means absence
c. Any form of cheating is punishable with suspension
d. Use of illegal drugs is punishable with dismissal.
e. Smoking inside the school facility is punishable with suspension.
2. The ancient Chinese sage named Lao Tsu: “Leave the people to themselves, no laws and inner goodness will
flourish”. “The more laws and commands there are, the more thieves and robbers will be”. Do you agree with this?
Why or why not? Explain briefly.

REFERENCES
✓ LoriMar Ethics (OBE&PPST Based) by Ruben A. Corpuz, AB English-Philo, PhD and Brenda B. Corpuz, BSE,
MAed,PHD. Pages 1-4

LOOKING AHEAD

Congratulations for making it till the end of this module! If you aced the assessments, I am happy for you. If you have not
reached your desired level of competence, just keep going! Remember that an expert was once a beginner. The next topic will
deal on the moral and non-moral standards! Happy learning.

SELF AND MODULE EVALUATION

This part requires the students to rate the quality of the module to help continuously improve the development of this
learning module. This also asks the students to rate their learning experience for each of the modules.
ex.
Rate the module using the following:
4 - Strongly disagree
3 - Disagree
2 - Agree
1 - Strongly agree

The learning module: 1 2 3 4

Please check appropriate column

was engaging
allowed for self-checking (SAAs)
developed in gradual, manageable steps
provided independent, self-paced learning
contained relevant information I needed

3
 SELF-EVALUATION

Rate the extent of your learning in this module using the scale blow. Check the column corresponding to your
rating in the space provided. Do not hesitate to contact me if you need further assistance.
4 - I’m an expert. I understand and can teach a friend about it.
3 - I’m a Practioner. I understand and can cite examples on the topics given.
2 - I’m an apprentice. I understand if I get help or look at more examples.
1 - I’m a novice. I do not understand the topic.

My learning: 1 2 3 4

I can now:

Please check appropriate column

• Defines rules
• Identify the different importance of rules

KEY TAKE AWAYS

➢ Rules are meant to set order in society.

➢ Rules are intended for human persons. They are not meant to limit a person’s freedom which is the ability
to choose and do what is good. Rather rules are meant to help person choose and do what is good.
➢ Those who do not what is good don’t even feel the presence of a rule that prevents them from doing what
is good. It is to those who intend to do the opposite of what is good that feel suffocating and limiting
presence of rule.
➢ When society is ideal, i.e when all persons are good and do only what is ideal then there will no more need
for rules and laws according to Lao Tzu.

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 END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT (Answer Sheet)
(Please do not forget to provide information on this part)
Name: _____________________________________________________________Course&Year:__________________
Module Number and Title: __________________________________________________________________________
Contact number & email (if any): _____________________________________________________________________
Date accomplished: ________________________________________________________________________________

I. REFLECTION
Reflect on your attitude towards rules.
1. Do you welcome rules? Give at least three action that shows that you are following the rules in any places.
a._______________________________________________________________________________________
b._________________________________________________________________________________________
c._________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What if there is no laws or rules?

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. As a student what action can make if someone is not following rules?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Is there any rules or laws, you wish that did not exist? State the law and explain briefly why don’t you like it.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

End of the 1st Module…

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 MORAL AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS
COMMUNCATION
MODULE 2

OVERVIEW

We often hear the terms “moral standards” and “non-moral standards”. What do these refer to? What
about the word “immoral”? Is there such thing as immoral standard? Is immoral synonymous with non-
moral?. Let’s find out in this lesson.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this lesson, learners are able to:
• Identify the various moral and non-moral standards
• Distinguish between moral and non-moral standards

LEARNING EXPERIENCES & SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES (SAA)

➢ ABSTRACTION
✓ Etymology and Meaning of Ethics
- The term "ethics" comes from the Greek word "ethos" meaning "custom" used in the works of Aristotle,
while the term "moral" is the Latin equivalent. Based on the Greek and Latin etymology of the word
"ethics„ ethics deals with morality. When the Roman orator Cicero exclaimed, tempora o mores" (Cicero,
1856) (Oh, what time and what morals), he may have been trying to express dismay of the morality of his
time.
- Ethics or moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy which deals with moral standards, inquires about the
rightness or wrongness of human behavior or the goodness or badness of personality, trait or character. It
deals with ideas, with topics such as moral standards or norms of morality, conscience, moral values and
virtues. Ethics is a study of the morality of human acts and moral agents, what makes an act obligatory and
what makes a person accountable.
- "Moral" is the adjective describing a human act as either ethically right or wrong, or qualifying a person,
personality, character, as either ethically good or bad. Moral Standards or Moral Frameworks and Non-
Moral Standards. Since ethics is a study of moral standards, then the first question for the course is, what
moral standards are. The following are supposed to be examples of moral standards: "Stealing is wrong."
"Killing is wrong," "Telling lies is wrong." "Adultery is wrong." "Environment preservation is the right
thing to do". "Freedom with responsibility is the right way." "Giving what is due to others is justice".
Hence, moral standards are norms or prescriptions that serve as the frameworks for determining what ought
to be done or what is right or wrong action, what is good or bad character. In the Activity phase of this
Lesson the following can be classified as moral standards:
o Do not lie.
o Don't steal.
o Don't cheat.
o Don't kill.
- Moral standards are either consequences standards (like Stuart Mill’s utilitarianism) or non-consequence
standards (like Aristole's virtue, St. Thomas' natural law, or Immanuel Kant' good will or sense of duty).

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- The consequence standards depend on results, outcome. An act that results in the general welfare, in the greatest good of
the greatest number, is moral. TO take part in a project that results in the improvement of the majority of people is,
therefore, moral.
- The non-consequence standards are based on the natural law. Natural law is the law of God revealed through human
reason. It is the "law of God written in the hearts of men." To preserve human life is in accordance with the natural law,
therefore it is moral. Likewise, the non-consequence standard may also be based on good will or intention, and on a sense
of duty. Respect for humanity, treatment of the other as a human person, an act that is moral, springs from a sense of duty,
a sense of duty that you will apply to all human persons.
- On the other hand, non-moral standards are social rules, demands of etiquette and good manners. They are guides of action
which should be followed as expected by society. Sometimes they may not be followed or some people may not follow
them. From time to time, changes are made regarding good manners or etiquette. In sociology, non-moral standards or
rules are called folkways. In short, non-moral actions are those where moral categories cannot be applied.
- Examples of non-moral standards are rules of good manners and right conduct, etiquette, rules of behavior set by parents,
teachers, and standards of grammar or language, standards of art, standards of sports set by other authorities. Examples are
"do not eat with your mouth open;" "observe rules of grammar," and "do not wear socks that don't match." In the Activity
phase of this Lesson, the following are non-moral standards:
o No talking while your mouth is full.
o Wear black or white for mourning; never red.
o The males should be the one to propose marriage not females.
o Observe correct grammar when writing and speaking English.
o Submit school requirements on time.
o If you are a male, stay by the danger side (roadside) when walking
o When you speak pronounce the words correctly
o Focus the microscope properly
o Maintain an good body figure
- An indicator whether or not a standard is moral or non-moral lies in its compliance as distinguished from its non-
compliance. Non-compliance with moral standards causes a sense of guilt, while non-compliance with a non-moral
standard may only cause shame or embarrassment.
✓ Classification of the Theories of Moral Standards
- Garner and Rosen (1967) classified the various moral standards formulated by moral philosophers as follows: I)
Consequence (teleological, from tele which means end, result or consequence) standard states that an act is right or
depending on the consequences of the act, that is the good that is produced in the world. Will it do you good if you go to
school? If the answer is right. Because you learn to read and write, then going to school is right. The consequence standard
can also be a basis for determining whether or not a rule is a right rule. So the consequence standard states that the
rightness or wrongness of a right rule depends on the consequences or the good that is produced in following the rule. For
Instance, if the rule of a game, everyone will enjoy playing the game. The good consequence proves the rule must be a
correct rule 2) Not-only-consequence standard (deontological), holds that the rightness or wrongness of an action or rule
depends on sense of duty, natural virtue and the demand of the situation or circumstances. The rightness or of an action
does not only depend or rely on the consequence of that action or that rule.
- Natural law and virtue ethics are deontological moral standards because their basis for determining is right or wrong does
not depend on consequences but on the natural law and virtue. Situation ethics, too, is deontological because the rightness
or of an act depends on situation and circumstances requiring or demanding exception to rule.
- Rosen and Gamer are inclined to consider deontology, be it rule or act deontology, as the better moral standard because it
synthesizes or includes all the other theory of norms. Under this theory, the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on
(or is a function of) all the following, a) consequences of an action or rule, what promotes one's good, the greatest good of
the greatest number; b) consideration other than consequences, like the obligatoriness or the act based on natural law or, its
being one's duty, or its promoting an ideal virtue. Deontology also considers the object, purpose, and circumstances or
situation of the moral issue or dilemma.

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✓ What Makes Standards Moral?
- The question means what obliges us to follow a moral standard? For theists, believers in God's existence, moral standards
are commandments of God revealed to man through prophets. According to the Old Testament, the Ten Commandments
were revealed by God to Moses. One who believes in God vows to Him and obliges himself/herself to follow His ten
commandments. For theists, God is the ultimate source of what is moral revealed to human persons.
- How about non-theists? For non-theists, God is not the source of morality. Moral standards are based on the wisdom of
sages like Confucius or philosophers like Immanuel Kant.
- In China, B. C., Confucius taught the moral standard, "Do unto others what you like others to do unto you" and persuaded
people to follow this rule because it is the right way, the gentleman's way. Later, Immanuel Kant, the German philosopher,
formulated a criterion for determining what makes a moral standard moral. It is stated as follows: "Act only according to
that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law." (1993) In other words, if a
maxim or standard cannot pass this test, it cannot be a moral standard. For instance, does the maxim "Stealing is wrong"
pass this test? Can one will that this maxim be a universal maxim? The answer is in the affirmative. The opposite of the
maxim would not be acceptable. Moral standards are standards that we want to be followed by all, otherwise, one would be
wishing one's own ill fortune. Can you wish "do not kill" to be a universal maxim? The answer has to be yes because if
you say "no" then you are not objecting to someone killing you. Thus, the universal necessity of the maxim, what makes
it a categorical imperative is what makes it obligatory. "Stealing is wrong" means "one ought not steal" and "Do not
kill" means "one ought not kill." It is one's obligation not to steal or kill. Ultimately, the obligation arises from the need of
self-preservation.
✓ The Origin of Moral Standards: Theist and Non-Theist
- Related to the question on what makes moral standards moral is how do moral standards arise or come into existence? A
lot of new attempts to explain the origins of morality or moral standards have been made. The theistic line of thought states
moral standards are of divine origin while 20th century thinkers claim state that they simply evolved. The issue is: Are
moral standards derived from God, communicated to man through signs or revelation, or did they arise in the course of
man's evolution? With the Divine source concept, moral standards are derived from natural law, man's "participation" in
the Divine law. The moral principle, "Do good and avoid evil" is an expression of natural law. Man's obliging himself to
respect the life, liberty, and property of his fellowman arises from the God-given sacredness, spirituality, and dignity of his
fellow man. It arises from his faith, hope, and love of God and man.
- With the evolutionary concept, the basics of moral standards — do good, avoid evil have been observed among primates
and must have evolved as the process of evolution followed its course.
- Are these theist and non-theist (evolutionary) origin of moral standards reconcilable?
- The evolutionist claims that altruism, a sense of morality, can be observed from man's fellow primates- the apes and
monkeys and, therefore, it can be said that the altruism of human persons evolved from the primates. However, the
evolutionist cannot satisfactorily argue, with factual evidence, that the rudiments of moral standards can be observed from
the primates. Neither can it be scientifically established that the theist view, that man's obliging himself to avoid evil,
refrain from inflicting harm on his fellowman, is a moral principle implanted by God in the hearts of men. But the concept
of creation and evolution are not necessarily contradictory. The revelation of the norms of Divine origin could not have
been instant, like a happening "in one fell swoop." It could have happened gradually as man evolved to differ from the
other primates• As the evolutionists claim, creation may be conceived as a process of evolution. Hence, the biblical story
of creation could have happened in billions Of Years instead of six days

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 SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES (SAA) SHEET

APPLICATION
1. Here are two questions:
a. Can we eat while praying?
b. Can one pray while eating?
Which is a moral question? Which is non- moral question? Explain briefly your answer.
2. I did not dress appropriately formally for a formal party. Which did I fail to observe? Moral or non-moral standard?
Explain briefly your answer.
3. Lady B dressed indecently to expose her body. Which did she violate moral or non-moral standard? Explain your
answer briefly.

REFERENCES
✓ LoriMar Ethics (OBE&PPST Based) by Ruben A. Corpuz, AB English-Philo, PhD and Brenda B. Corpuz, BSE,
MAed,PHD. Pages 5-12

LOOKING AHEAD
Congratulations for making it till the end of this module! If you aced the assessments, I am happy for you. If you have not
reached your desired level of competence, just keep going! Remember that an expert was once a beginner. The next topic will
deal on the Moral Dilemmas! Happy learning.

SELF AND MODULE EVALUATION

This part requires the students to rate the quality of the module to help continuously improve the development of this
learning module. This also asks the students to rate their learning experience for each of the modules.
ex.
Rate the module using the following:
4 - Strongly disagree
3 - Disagree
2 - Agree
1 - Strongly agree

The learning module: 1 2 3 4

Please check appropriate column

was engaging
allowed for self-checking (SAAs)
developed in gradual, manageable steps
provided independent, self-paced learning
contained relevant information I needed

9
 SELF-EVALUATION

Rate the extent of your learning in this module using the scale blow. Check the column corresponding to your
rating in the space provided. Do not hesitate to contact me if you need further assistance.
4 - I’m an expert. I understand and can teach a friend about it.
3 - I’m a Practitioner. I understand and can cite examples on the topics given.
2 - I’m an apprentice. I understand if I get help or look at more examples.
1 - I’m a novice. I do not understand the topic.

My learning: 1 2 3 4

I can now:

Please check appropriate column

• Identify the various moral and non-moral standards
• Distinguish between moral and non-moral standards

KEY TAKE AWAYS

✓ Non-moral standards originate from social rules, demands of etiquette and good manners. They are guides of
action which should be followed as expected by society.
✓ Moral standards are based on the natural law, the consequence of one's actions and sense of duty.
✓ Moral standards are based on natural law, the law of God revealed through human reason or the " law of God
written in the hearts of men."
✓ Moral standards are based on consequences standards. That which leads to a good consequence or result like the
greatest good of the greatest number is what is moral.
✓ Moral standards are based also on non-consequence standards or sense of duty that you wish would be followed
by all. Respect for humanity, treatment of the other as a human person, an act that is moral, springs from a sense
of duty, a sense of duty that you wish is wished by all and applies to all human persons.
✓ For theists, the origin of moral standards is God who "wrote his law in the heart of every person", the natural law.
For non-theists, the origin of moral standards is the moral frameworks formulated by philosophers like Confucius,
Immanuel Kant, Stuart Mill, et al.
✓ The evolutionist claims that the sense of moral standards must have evolved with man not something that was
implanted in every human person instantly at the moment of creation. Creation as a process may have taken place
not only in 6 days as the creationist claims but in billions of years as the evolutionist asserts.
✓ For the theists, belief in God strengthens them to be moral

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 END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT (Answer Sheet)
(Please do not forget to provide information on this part)
Name: _____________________________________________________________Course&Year:__________________
Module Number and Title: __________________________________________________________________________
Contact number & email (if any): _____________________________________________________________________
Date accomplished: ________________________________________________________________________________

I. IDENTIFICATION
Direction: Identify the following into: moral standards and non-moral standards.

1. No talking while your mouth is full.

2. Bo not lie.
3. Wear black or white for mourning never red.
4. Don’t steal.
5. Submit school requirements on time.
6. Go with the fashion or you are not “in”.
7. When you speak pronounce the words correctly.
8. Maintain a body figure.
9. Don’t kill.
10. Don’t cheat.

End of 2nd Module….

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 MORAL DILEMMAS
MODULE 3
COMMUNCATION
OVERVIEW

After learning moral and non-moral standards, you must now have an idea of what a moral experience is.
When you find yourself in a moral dilemma, you are in for a moral experience. What is moral dilemma? This is
the main focus of this lesson.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this lesson, learners are able to:

• Distinguish between moral dilemma and a false dilemma
• Define moral dilemma
• Define false dilemma

LEARNING EXPERIENCES & SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES (SAA)

➢ ABSTRACTION
✓ Meaning of Moral Dilemma
- A moral dilemma is a in the decision-making between possible options, neither of which is absolutely
acceptable from an ethical perspective. It is also referred to as ethical dilemma. The oxford defines ethical
dilemma as a "decision-making problem between two possible moral imperatives, neither of which is
unambiguously acceptable or preferable. It is sometimes called an ethical paradox in moral philosophy."
(Oxford Dictionary)
- Based on these definitions, moral dilemmas have the following in common: l) "the agent is required to do
each of two (or more) actions which are morally unacceptable; 2) the agent can do each of the actions; 3)
but the agent cannot do both (or all) of the actions. The agent thus seems condemned to moral failure; no
matter what she does, she will do something wrong (or fail to do something that she ought to do).
- This means that moral dilemmas are situations where two or more moral values or duties make demands on
the decision-maker, who can only honor one of them, and thus will violate at least one important moral
concern, no matter what he or she decides to do. Moral dilemmas present situations where there is tension
between moral values and duties that are more or less on equal footing. The decision-maker has to choose
between a wrong and another wrong. The decision-maker is a deadlock.
- To have a genuine dilemma, one of the conflicting solutions should not override the other. For instance,
the requirement to protect others from serious harm overrides the requirement to repay one's debts by
returning a borrowed item when its owner so demands." Hence,.. addition to the features mentioned above,
in order to have a genuine moral dilemma it must also be true that neither of the conflicting requirements is
Overridden" (McConnell, T. 2019). This means that none of the Conflicting requirements is solved by the
other. The persons involved in the dilemma are in a deadlock, They find themselves in a "darun-if-YOU-d0
and damn-if- you-don't" situation.
- Another example of a moral dilemma is the story the Bible about King Jerod. On his birthday, his
stepdaughter, Salome danced so well in front of him and the guests at his party that he promised to give her
anything she wanted. Salome consulted her mother about what she should wish for, and decided to ask for
the head of John the Baptist on a platter. The king now had a choice between honoring the promise to his
stepdaughter, or honoring the life of John the Baptist. And Herod chose to have John the Baptist beheaded.
- The king had inadvertently designed a moral trap for himself, a dilemma where whatever he decided to do
would be morally wrong.
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 ✓ Meaning of a False Dilemma
- On the other hand, a false dilemma is a situation where the decision0maker has a moral duty to do one thing, but is
tempted or under pressure to do something else. A false dilemma is a choice between a right and a wrong. For
example, a lawyer or an accountant can face an opportunity to prioritize self-interest over the client’s interest.
✓ What to do when faced with a moral dilemma?
- Ultimately, dilemmas are conflicts in the application of moral standards. The question is which moral standards
must be followed? In a state of emergency, necessity demands no moral law. You have to decide based on your best
judgment or choose based on the principle of lesser evil or greater good or urgency.

SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES (SAA) SHEET

APPLICATION
1. Are these moral dilemmas? Yes or No. Explain your answer.
a. Taking credit for others’ work in order to get promoted.
b. Manufacturing and distributing fake drugs for profit.
c. Offering a client a worse product for bigger profit.
d. Utilizing inside knowledge for your own profit.
2. Find a pair. Create ate least one moral dilemma. (Write your name and the name of your partner).

REFERENCES
✓ LoriMar Ethics (OBE&PPST Based) by Ruben A. Corpuz, AB English-Philo, PhD and Brenda B. Corpuz, BSE,
MAed,PHD. Pages 13-19.

LOOKING AHEAD
Congratulations for making it till the end of this module! If you aced the assessments, I am happy for you. If you have not
reached your desired level of competence, just keep going! Remember that an expert was once a beginner. The next topic will
deal on the The Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas! Happy learning.

KEY TAKE AWAYS

✓ A moral dilemma is a “decision-making problem between two possible moral imperatives, neither of which is
unambiguously acceptable or preferable.
✓ A moral dilemma is a situation where a person has the moral obligation to choose between two options both based
on moral standards, but he/she cannot choose both, and choosing one means violating the other.
✓ In a moral dilemma, one is caught between two options. It is a “damn-if-you-do and damn-if-you-don’t situation.
One is in a deadlock.
✓ False dilemmas are situations where the decision-maker has a moral duty to do one thing, but is tempted or under
pressure to do something else. A false dilemma is a choice between a right and a wrong unlike a moral dilemma
where both choices are wrong.

13
 SELF AND MODULE EVALUATION

This part requires the students to rate the quality of the module to help continuously improve the development of this
learning module. This also asks the students to rate their learning experience for each of the modules.
ex.
Rate the module using the following:
4 - Strongly disagree
3 - Disagree
2 - Agree
1 - Strongly agree

The learning module: 1 2 3 4

Please check appropriate column

was engaging
allowed for self-checking (SAAs)
developed in gradual, manageable steps
provided independent, self-paced learning
contained relevant information I needed
SELF-EVALUATION

Rate the extent of your learning in this module using the scale blow. Check the column corresponding to your
rating in the space provided. Do not hesitate to contact me if you need further assistance.
4 - I’m an expert. I understand and can teach a friend about it.
3 - I’m a Practitioner. I understand and can cite examples on the topics given.
2 - I’m an apprentice. I understand if I get help or look at more examples.
1 - I’m a novice. I do not understand the topic.

My learning: 1 2 3 4

I can now:

Please check appropriate column

• Distinguish between moral dilemma and a false dilemma
• Define moral dilemma
• Define false dilemma

14
 END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT (Answer Sheet)
(Please do not forget to provide information on this part)
Name: _____________________________________________________________Course&Year:__________________
Module Number and Title: __________________________________________________________________________
Contact number & email (if any): _____________________________________________________________________
Date accomplished: ________________________________________________________________________________

I. IDENTIFICATION
Direction: Write T if the statement is true and F if it is false.

________1. A person or a person in a moral dilemma can easily choose with course of action to take.

________2. In a moral dilemma, one course of action between two options is obviously immoral while the other
choice is moral.

________3. A person involved in a moral dilemma can choose both options.

________4. In moral dilemma, a person has a choice for the good, only that because he/she is tempted he/she ends up
choosing that which is not good.

________5. In a moral dilemma, a person is torn between two no good options.

________6. A moral dilemma is a problem in the decision-making between two possible options.

________7. A moral dilemma is a choice between right and wrong.

________8. When choosing a choice, the decision maker is in a deadlock.

_______9. To have a genuine dilemma, one of the conflicting solutions should not override.

_______10. With facing moral dilemma. You have to decide based on your best judgment or choose based on the
principle of lesser evil or greater good or urgency.

End of 3rd Module…

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 THE THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS
COMMUNCATION
MODULE 4

OVERVIEW

This lesson reinforces your understanding of moral dilemmas. After understanding the meaning of
moral dilemmas, let us now illustrate three levels of moral dilemma. In this lesson, you are expected to give
examples of the levels of moral dilemmas. A research on some significant events in history may help you
arrive at a concrete understanding of structural dilemma most especially.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this lesson, learners are able to:

• Distinguish the three level of moral dilemma
• Define the different level of moral dilemma

LEARNING EXPERIENCES & SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES (SAA)

• ABSTRACTION
o We have three levels of Moral Dilemmas
1. INDIVIDUAL
- This refers to personal dilemmas. It is an individual’s damn-if-you-do and damn-if-you-don’t
situation.
- The case of Heinz as given in the activity phase of the lesson is one of the best known individuals
dilemma’s of Kohlberg’s (1958)
- Kohlberg’s dilemma question were as follows: “Should Heinz have stolen the drug.” (Mackinnon,
B. etal 2015) If he did not steal the drug that would mean his wife’s death. He was torn between
stealing the drug and saving his wife. The dilemma is faced by an individual who is torn between
obligations – to save the wife or obey the law. So this an example of an individual dilemma.
2. ORGANIZATIONAL
- An organizational dilemma is a puzzle posed by the dual necessities of a social organization and
member’s self-interest. It may exist between personal interests and organizational welfare or
between group interest and organizational well-being. (Wagner, J. 2019)
- The example of the Catholic school in the activity phase of the lesson shows the dilemma between
the goal of the school to give quality education for the poor and so must charge the lowest tuition
fee possible and yet to keep quality faculty the school must raise their salary and consequently,
must raise tuition.
- Organizational dilemmas may likewise occur in business, medical and public sector.
- The following hypothetical case highlights the story of Brown, a 74-year old man who is seriously
ill of metastatic lung cancer. Mr. Brown completed a full course of radiation therapy as well as
chemotherapy for treatment of his cancer, and he is now hospitalized with severe shortness of
breath and pneumonia. His physician has managed the symptoms associated with the lung disease
including chest pain, fever, infection, and respiratory distress, but believes that there are no other
options available to aggressively treat the underlying cancer.... Both Mr. Brown and his wife
clearly state that they 'want everything done. '...

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- The dilemma here lies in the conflicting concerns: a) the financial problems of Mr. Brown and his wife, b) the
hospital concern of focusing its attention on this hopeless patient when there are other cases which have still
possible remedies, c) the other hospital patient's concern, particularly their need of the medicine used by Mr.
Brown, c) the concern of the medical staff, et al.
- Organizational dilemmas arise due to different opposing concerns between various groupings in an organization.
3. STRUCTURAL
- The case of the principal whether to be participatory or non- participatory in school affairs but due to her not so
favorable experience of attempting to be participatory ended up to one-woman rule is an example of a structural
dilemma.
- Below are more examples of structural dilemma.
a. Differentiation Versus Integration in Structural Dilemma
- Different divisions have their own different culture and so coordination between divisions or bringing them
together for becomes more difficult.
- With decentralization, local governments have become more empowered to direct their affairs just as schools have
become empowered to address their problems or are given opportunity to in effect, local governments and schools
have likewise become more differentiated and so it becomes more difficult to integrate them for a unified structure.
Local governance and schools curricula have become more complex. There is need for more costly coordination
strategies.
- Any attempt to introduce reform in society or government creates structural dilemma. For instance, promoting or
introducing universal health care, which is tantamount to socialized health care, gives rise to a structural dilemma,
that is, a conflict of perspective of sectors, groups and institutions that may be affected by the decision. Why would
those who contribute less to the social fund enjoy the same benefits as those who contributed big amounts of
premium? In a study on the prices Of medicines in the Philippines, it was established that "patients are buying
medicines from the private sector at many times their international reference price" (Ateneo de Manila University
2019). If the government intervenes by introducing price control, the drug stores may lose so much that they may
close shop. If the government does not do anything at all, the patients will continue to suffer because they may not
be able to afford the high prices of medicines.
b. Gap Versus Overlap
- There may be gaps and overlaps in roles and responsibilities. If key responsibilities are not clearly assigned, there
may be gaps or overlaps in important tasks. If there are gaps, organizations end up with no one doing the
responsibility. If there are overlaps, things become unclear and may lead to more confusion and even conflict and
worse wasted effort and perhaps even resources because of the unintended overlap.
- Here is an example. A patient in a teaching hospital called her husband to report how disturbed she is and how
sleepless she was during the night. At night, she couldn't sleep because hospital staff kept waking her up, often to
repeat what someone else had already done. This is an overlap of nurse duty. Conversely, when she wanted
something, her call button rarely produced any response. This is a gap. There is a gap as to who according to rule is
supposed to respond to the buzzer. (www.humancapitalreview.org/content/default.asp?Article)
- To illustrate further the consequence of gap and overlap, here is a story to show what happens when there is a gap
or overlap. A boy wanted his pants shorter. So he went to his mother to ask him to shorten it. His mother was busy
computing grades and told her son to ask his sister to do it. His sister was busy reviewing for the final exams and
asked her brother to ask their elder brother to do it. But his older brother was also busy with his school project and
so could not also attend to it. The boy highly frustrated went to sleep. His pants were beside him. After finishing her
grades, Mother peeped into her sons; room, saw the pants and remembered her son's request' so she took pair of
scissors and shortened them. Before she went to bed' the sister also remembered her brother's request. Full Of
remorse she went to her younger brother's room, saw the pants, got a pair of scissors and shortened them, too. The
older brother finally completed his school project and suddenly remembered his brother's asking for help to shorten
the pants. So he went to his younger brother's room, got a pair of scissors and cut them, too. When the younger
brother woke up, he was surprised to see a pair of extremely short shorts. The pants which he wanted to make just a
little bit shorter ended up too short to him!

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- That is what happens when there are gaps or overlaps in an organization. The gaps leave an important thing in an
organization undone. The overlap results in unnecessary and counterproductive, redundant procedures which
ultimately lead to waste of resources.
c. Lack of Clarity Versus Lack Of Creativity
- If employees are unclear about what they are supposed to do, they often tailor their roles around personal
preferences instead of system wide goals, frequently leading to trouble. Most McDonald's customers are not
seeking novelty and surprise in their burgers and fries. But when responsibilities are over defined, people conform
to prescribed roles and protocols in "bureaucratic" ways. They rigidly follow job descriptions regardless of how
much the service or product suffers and so end up uncreative.
- "You lost my bag!" an angry passenger shouted, confronting an airline manager. The manager's response was to
inquire, "How I asked about my bag," the passenger said. "That's was the flight? not my job," the manager replied.
"See someone in baggage claim." The passenger did not leave as a happy airline customer.
www.humancapitalreview.org/content/default.asp?Article ID528# The job of the manager was over defined and
made the manager uncreative and inefficient. Her job in relation to the airline system wide goals was neither clear
and so ended up giving the wrong answer that turned Off the airline passenger.
d. Flexibility versus Strict Adherence to Rules
- You accommodate by bending rules to help someone or you stick strictly to rules no matter what and so unable to
help someone who is thrown into a helpless situation. Or you may become being too accommodating that all rules
are no more.
- Your jobs are defined so clearly that you will stick to them even if circumstances are such that by sticking to your
job description the service or product that your organization provides suffers.
e. Excessive Autonomy Versus Excessive Interdependence
- To illustrate:
o When individuals or groups are too autonomous, people often feel isolated and disconnected. School
teachers working in self-contained classrooms and rarely working with other teachers may feel lonely and
unsupported. Yet, efforts to create closer teamwork have repeatedly failed because of teachers ' difficulties
in working together. In contrast, if units and roles are too tightly linked, people are distracted from work
and waste time on unnecessary or too much coordination. IBM lost an early lead in the personal computer
business in part because new initiatives required so many approvals —from levels and divisions that new
products were over designed and late to market. alike Hewlett — Packard's ability to innovate in the late
1990's was hindered by the same problem. (www.humancapitalreview.org/content/default. asp?Artic1e
ID528#)
- Structural dilemma is the dilemma arising from conflicting concerns among various sectors of society. In the first instance of
differentiation versus integration, the dilemma is how to enforce a decision, policy, or rule intended for everybody among
many different or unique groups or individuals. In the second, the dilemma arises because of either gaps or overlaps in the
procedure of implementation of certain projects or policies among involved agencies like the FBI and CIA in the U.S.A. or like
the NBI and the INP in the Philippines. GAPS creates serious consequences. Read about the unforgettable Mamasapano
massacre in Mindanao, Philippines.
f. Centralized versus Decentralized Decision Making
- In decentralized decision making, organizations can respond to change more rapidly and effectively because the decision
makers are the people closest to the situation. However, top managers may lose some control. This is the dilemma of tight
overcentralization or diffusing authority which is loose.
- Succinctly put, a structural dilemma in a world organization like the UN is the problem of the balance between world order
and national sovereignty re-stated as the balance between the measure of international authority essential to the establishment
of an organized common peace and the continued freedom of action of the separate members of the world community or the
balance between interdependence and independence. (Jenks, 1971)
- Structural Dilemma in a World Organization like the UN
- The following offer some techniques in resolving moral dilemma: One way is to think of available alternative options
revealing that the dilemma does not really exist. This happens where there are available alternative options. For instance one is
experiencing a dilemma between stealing or not stealing otherwise his family will either die of hunger or survive. The creative
moral agent will try to think of other alternatives, like "alternative means of income or support such as social safety net,
charity, etc."

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 - Another way is "choosing the greater good and lesser evil" or one may apply the situation ethics approach,
following the rule, one must do only what he can where he is. Do not resort to extraordinary or supernatural means.
- Joseph Fletcher offers some principles in resolving moral dilemma. He uses Kant's "ought implies I can" rule. If I
ought to do something, then I can do it. By contraposition, if I cannot do something, then I cannot be obliged to do
it. Or by implication, either I cannot be obliged to do something or I can do it. In other words, one is only obliged to
do something if and only if he can do it. So Fletcher says, "do what you can where you are." Or quoting St.
Augustine's, "Dilige, et quod vis fac" (love and do what you will). The extent of one's obligation and
responsibility is the extent of one's ability and the measure of the "extent" is one's capacity for love.
- Here is a situation: You are a father of seven children. on your support, seven children plus your wife depend. You
work in the mines and receive only a minimum wage. After working like a "carabao" in the mines, you need to ease
your pains with a bottle of gin before you lie down to rest and sleep. You also need to eat food sufficient enough to
replace your wasted energy. Hence, you spend for wine, food, and cigarette. Minus these expenses, the balance of
your wage is just enough for the food of your children. Nothing is left for their education, and other expenses.
Question: Should you be faulted for not being able to sacrifice enough by giving up your needs, so that your
dependents can have something left for their education? You love your family, but you have a need you cannot give
up. Is your case what Fletcher wants to picture? Your obligation ends where your capacity for love ends. Love is
supposed to be unconditional, no limits of sacrifice or boundaries. But your love is human, you are only human.
"You can only do what you can where you are." Others can sacrifice more by giving up their gin and cigarette and
eat less expensive food. Yes others can, but can one be faulted for not being like the others, not having the strength
to overcome a vice? Can one not argue that the extent of his ability is the limit of his responsibility? On the other
hand, can it not be said that resorting to human frailty is just a convenient or comfortable way of justifying one's
lack of moral will? That may be easier said than done, although it is possible for one who has virtue as his moral
strength. But what can be said of one who has no moral virtue or strength to sacrifice with the discomfort of self-
giving? Endless condemnation? That would be un-Christian.

SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES (SAA) SHEET

APPLICATION
1. Give at least one true to life example of structural dilemmas that illustrates:
a. Excessive autonomy vs. excessive interdependence
b. Flexibility vs. strict adhere to rules
c. Gap vs. overlap
d. Differentiation vs. integration
e. Centralized vs. decentralized decision-making
f. Sovereignty of nations vs. world peace and order

REFERENCES

✓ LoriMar Ethics (OBE&PPST Based) by Ruben A. Corpuz, AB English-Philo, PhD and Brenda B. Corpuz, BSE,
MAed,PHD. Pages 20-29.

KEY TAKE AWAYS

✓ Moral dilemmas come in three levels – individual, organizational and structural.
✓ Individual dilemmas concern dilemmas that individuals face.
✓ Organizational dilemmas refer to dilemmas faced by groups or individual as a result of structural relationships.

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 ✓ A world organization like the United Nations is usually faced with this dilemma: sovereignty of nations versus
world order.
✓ If confronted by dilemma, choose the greater good and lesser evil or… do only what you can where you are
(Fletcher) or “ love and do what you will” (St. Agustine) The extent of one’s obligation and responsibility is the
extent of one’s ability and the measure if the “extent” in one’s capacity for love.

SELF AND MODULE EVALUATION

This part requires the students to rate the quality of the module to help continuously improve the development of this
learning module. This also asks the students to rate their learning experience for each of the modules.
ex.
Rate the module using the following:
4 - Strongly disagree
3 - Disagree
2 - Agree
1 - Strongly agree

The learning module: 1 2 3 4

Please check appropriate column

was engaging
allowed for self-checking (SAAs)
developed in gradual, manageable steps
provided independent, self-paced learning
contained relevant information I needed
SELF-EVALUATION

Rate the extent of your learning in this module using the scale blow. Check the column corresponding to your
rating in the space provided. Do not hesitate to contact me if you need further assistance.
4 - I’m an expert. I understand and can teach a friend about it.
3 - I’m a Practitioner. I understand and can cite examples on the topics given.
2 - I’m an apprentice. I understand if I get help or look at more examples.
1 - I’m a novice. I do not understand the topic.

My learning: 1 2 3 4

I can now:

Please check appropriate column

• Distinguish the three level of moral dilemma
• Define the different level of moral dilemma

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 END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT (Answer Sheet)
(Please do not forget to provide information on this part)
Name: _____________________________________________________________Course&Year:__________________
Module Number and Title: __________________________________________________________________________
Contact number & email (if any): _____________________________________________________________________
Date accomplished: ________________________________________________________________________________

I. CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING

Direction: Identify the structural dilemma described. (Differentiation vs. integration; gap vs. overlook; lack of
clarity vs. lack of creativity; flexibility vs. strict adhere to rules; excessive vs. independence)

_________________________ 1. Excessive interdependence vs. too much coordination.

__________________________2. Different divisions have their own culture vs. coordination between or
among divisions by using lateral strategies to bring divisions together.

__________________________3. Being too accommodating causing inconsistency vs. adhering to rules.

__________________________4. Unclear roles and responsibilities due to redundancy gaps.

__________________________5. Lack of resourcefulness as a result of unclear duties and responsibilities.

II. REFLECTION
1. What structural dilemma have you experienced? How did you deal with it? Are you happy with how you
dealt with it?

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________

End of 4th Module….

End of Prelim Module……..

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