Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Iii. Flexural Analysis and Design of Beams: CHAPTER 9, Sections 1-2
Iii. Flexural Analysis and Design of Beams: CHAPTER 9, Sections 1-2
Igusa 10
1. Introduction
The analysis of beams will proceed as follows:
Chapter III: Dimensioning of the concrete cross section.
Selection and placement of reinforcing steel.
Chapter IV: Shear reinforcement.
Chapter V: Bond and anchorage of rebars.
Chapter VI: Serviceability, deflections, and cracking.
f = My/I
f = stress
M = moment applied to the beam
I = moment of inertia of the cross section
y = distance from the neutral axis
Example 3.1
Consider a plain concrete beam that is 10 inches wide and 30 inches deep. The
strength of the concrete is given by f'c = 4000 psi and fr = 475 psi.
What is the maximum (nominal) moment that can be applied to the beam?
moment of inertia = I = b h3 / 12 =
concrete stress = f = M y / I =
Failure configurations
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 12
h d
b
no tension cracks if: fct < fr
Stresses elastic and section cracked:
steel is yielding
compression stress is inelastic
concrete is still intact
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 13
A 1 , I1
A 2 , I2
y = 1 y dA
Area
y =
∑ A i yi
∑ Ai
I = (y – y )2 dA
I = ∑ Ii + ∑ A i (y – yi )2
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 14
f
a/2
a
C = abf
f
a/3
a
C = a b f /2
n = Es / Ec = modular ratio
In the transformed section, the area of the steel, As, is replaced by a larger area, nAs,
of concrete. Some of the concrete "fills" the area, As, originally occupied by the steel.
The remaining concrete, which has area (n–1)As, is placed outside of the rectangular
dimensions of the beam at the centeroid of the steel.
h d
b
(n–1)A s
Example 3.2
Consider the same concrete beam examined in Example 3.1 (10" wide, 30" deep,
f'c = 4000 psi, and fr = 475 psi). Two inches from the bottom of the beam, two
Number 9 bars are inserted. The strength of the steel is fy = 60,000 psi.
What is the largest moment that can be applied to the beam before it cracks?
Solution
First, find the modular ratio, n:
Ec = 57,000 √f'c (see page 7) =
n = Es / Ec =
Next, the basic geometric properties of the cross section are found:
As =
A1 = b h =
A 2 = (n–1) As =
I1 = b h3 / 12 =
I2 ≈ 0 (usual approximation)
(n–1)A s
y =
∑ A i yi = A1 y1 + A2 y2 =
∑ Ai A 1 + A2
Iut = ∑ Ii + ∑ A i (y – yi )2 =
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 17
(n–1)A s
Make sure the concrete tension stress is less than the rupture strength, fr:
fct = M y / Iut =
Make sure the steel tension stress is less than the yield strength, fy :
Make sure the concrete compression stress is less than the linear elastic limit, f'c /2:
fc = M y / Iut =
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 18
Using basic principles of mechanics, it is possible to find the location of the neutral
axis, kd, and the stresses in the concrete and steel. The final results are:
k = (ρ n )2 + 2ρ n – ρ n (9-3)
j = 1 – k/3
fs = M (9-5)
As j d
fc = 2M (9-4)
k j bd2
Icr = b k2 j d3 / 2
The derivations are based on the diagram of the concrete stresses on the next page.
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 19
kd
b nA s
M = Tjd =
= Cjd =
Equation (9-3) for the neutral axis is derived from the following:
y =
∑ A i yi =
A1 y1 + A2 y2
or ȳ ( A1 + A2 ) = A1 ȳ1 + A2 ȳ2
∑ Ai A 1 + A2
It is necessary to substitute the terms for A1, A2, ȳ1, ȳ2, and ȳ:
Example 3.3
Consider the same concrete beam examined in Example 3.2 (10" wide, 30" deep,
f'c = 4000 psi, fr = 475 psi, fy = 60,000 psi, two No. 9 bars 2" from bottom).
Determine the maximum moment that can be carried without stressing the concrete
beyond f'c/2 or the steel beyond fy/2.
Solution
First, the neutral axis is determined:
ρ = As / bd =
ρn =
k = (ρ n )2 + 2ρ n – ρ n =
kd =
j = 1 – k/3 =
Then, the maximum stresses in the steel and concrete are found:
fs = M =
As j d
fc = 2M =
k j bd2
Just for checking, the stresses are recalculated using the cracked moment of inertia,
Icr, and the usual stress formula, f = My/I:
Icr = b k2 j d3 / 2 =
fc = M y / Icr =
d c
a/2
a
c
d
d – a/2
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 22
The relationship between the distance to the neutral axis, c, and the depth of the
stress distribution, a, is given by:
Equivalent stress parameters
a = β1 c
c = a / β1
M n = As fy (d – a/2) = R b d2 (4-12a)
ρ fy
R = ρ fy 1 – 0.59
f'c
ρmin = 200 / fy (f'c < 4440psi) or ρmin = 3 f' c / fy (f'c > 4440psi) (4-31)
ρmax = 0.75 ρb
f' 87,000
ρb = 0.85 β1 c (4-25)
fy 87,000 + fy
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 23
a =
Using similar triangles, we find the following ratios where the maximum concrete
strain is εc = εu and the steel strain is εs = εy:
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 24
c. Under-reinforced beams
If the steel ratio, ρ, is less than the balanced steel ratio, ρb, then the beam is
under-reinforced, and the steel will yield before the concrete crushes. However, if
the steel ratio is larger than ρb, then the beam is over-reinforced, and the concrete
will crush before the steel yields. As explained in Section 3 (page 11), yielding steel
makes the beam fail slowly with large deflections, while crushing concrete makes
the beam fail explosively with immediate, catostrophic collapse.
To allow for possible variations in the concrete and steel properties, it is safer to
make ρ significantly less than ρb. The ACI Code gives the following design limit:
ρ ≤ ρmax = 0.75 ρb
Thus, the steel ratio must be at least 25% less than the balanced steel ratio.
d. Minimum steel ratio
If the moment capacity of an uncracked beam (Section 3a) is greater than the
moment capacity of a cracked beam (Section 4), then the beam will fail as soon as a
crack is formed. This type of failure is not as catostrophic as concrete crushing,
because the steel will still yield. However, it is sudden, because it will occur
immediately after the concrete cracks.
To eliminate this possibility, the ACI Code gives a lower limit for the steel ratio:
ρ ≥ ρ min where
ρmin = 200 / fy (f'c < 4440psi) or ρmin = 3 f' c / fy (f'c > 4440psi) (4-31)
Review is where the beam dimensions and reinforcing steel sizes are given, and
the beam strength is to be computed. Review is very straightforward since it is
necessary only to "plug in" the dimensions into a set of formulas.
Design is where the required beam strength (or load) is given, and the
dimensions of the beam and reinforcing steel are determined. Design is more
challenging than review for two reasons: First, it may be necessary to iterate to
find the optimal beam dimensions. Second, there is, in general, no unique
solution to the problem.
Solution
First, the steel ratio must be checked against the limits, ρmin and ρmax :
f' 87,000
ρb = 0.85 β1 c (4-25)
fy 87,000 + fy
ρmax = 0.75 ρb =
ρmin = 200 / fy (f'c < 4440psi) or ρmin = 3 f' c / fy (f'c > 4440psi) (4-31)
Mn = As fy (d – a/ 2) = (4-12a)
The design is based on the strengths of the concrete and steel, as defined by f'c and fy,
and the factored load, Mu.
Solution
Before proceeding with the design steps, it is necessary to find the load.
f' 87,000
ρb = 0.85 β1 c =
fy 87,000 + fy
ρ = 0.5 ρb =
2'. Find the corresponding value for R using the equation on page 22.
ρ fy
R = ρ fy 1 – 0.59 =
f'c
weight per foot = area (ft2) × 145 pcf = bh (ft2) × 145 pcf =
wd =
w u = 1.4 wd + 1.7 wl =
M u = wu L2 / 8 =
b d2 ≥ Mu / φ R =
Next follow the steps for "design with specific concrete dimensions".
2a. Substitute the preceding value for R into the equation on page 22. The result is
a quadratic equation with unknown, ρ. The smallest of the two solutions for
the steel ratio, ρ, is the correct solution.
ρ fy
R = ρ fy 1 – 0.59 =
f'c
2b. Check the steel ratio with the maximum and minimum values:
3. Calculate the required area of steel, As = ρbd. Use Table A-8 to find suitable
rebars. Preference is to fewer and same-sized bars. In any case, the rebars should
be symmetrically placed (in both size and location). For close cases, redo step 2b.
As = ρbd =
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 29
4. Use Table A-6 to check for placement and concrete cover. A well-drawn
diagram is essential, particularly in professional practice.
5. Design Aids
There are many tables which can be used to simplify some of the calculations.
However, some of the tables require interpolation, which requires as much work as
solving the original analytical expressions. The following tables can be used:
CAST IN PLACE
3/4 in. slabs & walls
1-1/2 in. beams & columns
CAST IN PLACE,
EXPOSED TO WEATHER OR GROUND
1-1/2 in. No. 5 & smaller
2 in. No. 6 & larger
Some commonly used dimensions are given below for slabs and beams:
SLABS
No. 3 ~ 4 bars
Depth is:
. . . 4.5", 5", 5.5", 6", 7", 8", . . .
Required cover is 3/4 in.
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 31
b. Concrete proportions
The usual effective depth, d, of a beam is about 2 to 3 times the width b (or bw for T-
beams). However, architectural or construction considerations may place limits on
either d or b or both.
BEAMS COLUMNS
1 in.
These distance requirements limits the number of rebars that can be fit into a single
layer. Table A-6 can be used as a rough estimate of the maximum number of rebars.
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 32
d
f s= f y
εs ≥ ε y
assume tension
b steel is yielding
0.85 f'c
C = 0.85 f'c ab
a d'
d d – d' d – a/2
A sf y
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 33
It is clear from the preceding diagram that the total moment of the beam is:
There are two unknowns in the above: the compression steel stress, f's, and the
depth of the equivalent stress, a. These parameters are given by:
f's = εu Es ( c – d' ) / c
a = β1 c
STEEL RATIOS
For both cases, the critical compression steel ratio, ρ̄cy, is given by
f' 87,000
ρcy = 0.85 β1 c d' + ρ' (alternative to 5-4)
fy d 87,000 – fy
Furthermore, it is assumed that the tension steel is always yielding. This is true
only if the compression steel ratio, ρ, is less than the balanced steel ratio, ρ̄b
ρmin = 200 / fy (f'c < 4440psi) or ρmin = 3 f' c / fy (f'c > 4440psi) (4-31)
f' 87,000
ρb = 0.85 β1 c (4-25)
fy 87,000 + fy
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 34
DERIVATIONS
CASE I: Assume the compression steel is yielding.
If f's = fy, then the only unknown is the parameter a. It is found from equilibrium
of the forces for the moment Mn2 :
ε's
=
εu
Since the compression steel is not yielding, the following linear relation holds:
f's = ε's Es =
Finally, the preceding equation is multiplied by c and the relation a = β1c is used:
0.85 f'c β1 c2 b =
2. Check if it is necessary to include the effect of the compression steel area, A's.
If ρ ≤ 0.75 ρb: Ignore A's and use equations on page 22.
If ρ > 0.75 ρb: Continue with the steps below.
4. Find the compression steel stress, f's, and the depth of the stress distribution, a.
If ρ ≥ ρ̄cy: This is Case I, with f's = fy.
Find a using equation (5-11a).
If ρ < ρ̄cy: This is Case II, with f's < fy.
First solve for c using equation (5-17).
Use a = β1 c.
Then find f's using the on page 33.
Solution
b
The basic parameters of the beam are:
As = 6 in2, ρ = As / bd =
A's = 3 in2, ρ' = A's / bd =
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 36
4. Since ρ < ρ̄ cy, this is Case II, with f's < fy.
The distance to the neutral axis, c, is determined by the quadratic equation:
0.85 β1 f'c b c2 – As fy c + A's εu Es ( c – d' ) = 0 (5-17)
8. T Beams
Most reinforced concrete floors, roofs, and decks are cast in one step. In particular,
beams are integrated into floor slabs as shown below. The basic dimensions are:
b. Strength analysis
If the depth of the equivalent stress block is less than the thickness of the slab, a ≤ hf,
then the T-beam can be replaced by a rectangular beam with width b, as shown
below. For such cases, the analysis of the preceding sections would be unchanged.
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 38
f s= f y
If a > hf, then it is necessary to express the nominal moment as a sum of two
moments, as shown in the diagrams below. The following definitions are used:
As = total area of tension steel (in the web)
Asf = area of tension steel which balances the flange compression force
ρw = As / bwd = steel ratio for the steel in the web
ρf = Asf / bwd = steel ratio for the steel area, Asf
ρ = As / bd = steel ratio for the equivalent rectangular beam
0.85 f'c εu = 0.003
a
c
d
f s= f y
0.85 f'c
f s= f y
0.85 f'c
f s= f y
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 39
It is clear from the preceding diagram that the total moment of the beam is:
There are two unknowns in the above: the steel area, Asf, and the depth of the
equivalent stress block, a. These parameters are given by:
f'
Asf = 0.85 c ( b – bw ) hf (5-1b)
fy
( As – Asf ) fy
a = (5-3)
0.85f 'c bw
ρmin = 200 / fy (f'c < 4440psi) or ρmin = 3 f' c / fy (f'c > 4440psi) (4-31)
f' 87,000
ρb = 0.85 β1 c (4-25)
fy 87,000 + fy
2. Assume that a ≤ hf and do the design of rectangular beams in Section 4 (page 26).
5. Set the design strength equal to the factored moment, φM n = Mu, using
equation (5-5). This is a quadratic equation which must be solved to find the
unknown parameter, a.
6. Use equation (5-3) to find the required tension steel area, As.
Solution
1. Find the effective flange width, b, using the ACI Code equations.
R = Mu / φ b d2 =
Substitute the preceding value for R into the equation on page 22. The result
is a quadratic equation with unknown, ρ. The smallest of the two solutions
for the steel ratio, ρ, is the correct solution.
ρ fy
R = ρ fy 1 – 0.59 =
f'c
ρ fy d
a = =
0.85f' c
f'
Asf = 0.85 c ( b – bw ) hf =
fy
Asf
ρf = =
bw d
560.325 Lecture Notes © T. Igusa 42
6. Use equation (5-3) to find the required tension steel area, As.
( As – Asf ) fy
a = =
0.85f 'c bw