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Comparison of Learning Theories: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism

Lenrose Fears

EDIT 6100/Dr. Gregory Clinton

Spring 2008

“I never teach my pupils; I only attempt to provide the conditions in which they can learn.”

~~~Albert Einstein

Learning theories are classified into three main categories: behaviorism, cognitivism, and

constructivism. The purpose of this assignment is to define and explain the three learning

theories, explore the similarities and differences between the theories, and describe the roles of

the teacher and learner in each theory.

Behaviorism refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson and established

with the 1913 publication of Watson's classic paper, Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It.

Watson believed that behaviors are measurable, they can be trained and changed, and that only

observable behaviors should be studied. Cognition and mood are considered too abstract and

subjective to be accurately and scientifically studied. According to behaviorist theory, our

responses to environmental stimuli shape our behaviors; therefore, in the view of the behavioral

theorist, learning is simply “the acquisition of new behavior.” Classical conditioning, operant

conditioning, and reinforcement are some of the important and widely applied concepts that have

arisen from behaviorism (Wagner, 2008).

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Classical conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The most popular

example is Pavlov's observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food. Essentially,

animals and people are biologically "wired" so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific

response (Phillips & Soltis, 2003).

Behavioral or operant conditioning is the rewarding of a partial behavior or a random act that

approaches the desired behavior. Operant conditioning can be used to shape behavior. If a reward or

reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more likely to occur

in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used reinforcement techniques in a

series of compelling experiments in which he trained pigeons to perform behaviors such as

dancing and bowling a ball in a mini-alley (PBS, 1998, & Phillips & Soltis, 2003).

Behaviorist theory is relatively simple to understand because it relies only on observable

behavior and describes several universal laws of behavior. Positive and negative behavioral

reinforcement techniques have been used quite successfully in modifying both animal and human

behavior. The application of behaviorist techniques has been especially effective and useful in

special education classes and other treatment programs for human disorders such as autism and

antisocial behavior. Classroom teachers who establish systems of rewards and punishment in

order to modify student behavior are practitioners of behaviorist theory (Phillips & Soltis, 2003).

According to behaviorist theory, the role of the teacher is to determine the desired behavior,

ensure that students have a clear understanding of what is expected of them, and then proceed to

set up a system of rewards that is designed to reinforce and encourage appropriate behavioral

responses. The role of the student is to learn what type of response should follow a particular

stimulus, and to consistently provide the correct responses (Bayer, 2001).

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By contrast, cognitivism focuses on unobservable changes in mental knowledge. The

following are some general assumptions of cognitive theory (Cunia, 2007):

1. Some learning processes are unique to human beings.

2. Cognitive processes can be studied.

3. Objective, systematic observations of human behavior should be the focus of

scientific inquiry; however, inferences about unobservable mental processes can often

be drawn from such behavior.

4. Individuals are actively involved in the learning process.

5. Learning involves the formation of mental associations that are not necessarily

reflected in overt behavior changes.

6. Knowledge is organized.

7. Learning is a process of relating new information to previously learned information.

Some general implications of cognitive theory are as follows (Cunia, 2007):

1. Cognitive processes influence learning

2. Children become increasingly capable of more sophisticated thought as they mature.

3. People tend to organize the information and skills that they learn.

4. People acquire knowledge more easily when they are able to associate it with

something they already know.

5. People control their own learning.

The role of the teacher in cognitivism is to understand and use his or her knowledge of the

learning process to reach the intended learning outcomes, and to incorporate devices into each
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lesson that will enable students to connect new concepts with previously learned information.

The role of the student is to be an active participant in his or her own learning experience

(Harris, 1995). According to Bayer (2001), “Learning takes place when information is received

into the mind and then processed to make sense of it. Learning new information is made possible

by connecting it to existing information and then storing it so it can be retrieved later.”

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that we create our

understanding of the world we live in by reflecting on our own personal experiences. Each of us

generates our own "rules" and "mental models," which we use to make sense of our experiences.

Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new

experiences (Brooks & Brooks, 1999).

There are several guiding principles of constructivism (Brooks & Brooks, 1999):

1. Because learning is a search for meaning, learning must begin with the issues

around which students are actively trying to construct meaning.

2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. Parts are understood in

the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary

concepts, not isolated facts.

3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to

perceive the world, and the assumptions they make to support those models.

4. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning,

not just memorize the "right" answers in order to duplicate someone else's

meaning. Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to

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measure learning is to make the assessment part of the learning process, ensuring

it provides students with information on the quality of their learning.

The following are some ways that constructivism affects or influences learning (Brooks &

Brooks, 1999):

Curriculum--Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardized

curriculum. Instead, it promotes using curricula customized to the students' prior

knowledge. In addition, it emphasizes hands-on problem solving.

Instruction--Under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making

connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students.

Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage

students to analyze, interpret, and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily

on open-ended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students.

Assessment--Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized

testing. Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students

play a larger role in judging their own progress.

The role of the constructivist teacher is “to provide complex questions and to create a

collaborative, problem-solving environment where students are free to make discoveries and to

construct meaning from these discoveries (Bayer, 2001).” The role of the student is construct

knowledge by thinking about and interpreting his or her experiences, making and testing

hypotheses, and looking for generalizations (Bayer, 2001).

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Behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism have several similarities and differences. They

are similar in that all three attempt to explain and describe how learning occurs. All learning

theories can be considered attempts to improve teaching, learning, and the educational and

instructional process as a whole.

Behaviorism concentrates on observable behavior while cognitivism is concerned with

cognitive and mental processes that cannot be observed. Like cognitivism, constructivism

focuses on mental processes and problem solving, but also takes into consideration the

importance of student responses, an important aspect of behaviorist theory. Cognitivism and

constructivism are also similar in that they both stress the importance of the relationship of

newly presented or acquired information to learning that has already taken place. In other words,

learners are expected to relate new concepts to prior knowledge and experience.

After a thorough examination of the learning theories, it is reasonable to wonder which theory

is best. The answer, of course, is that there is no one perfect learning theory that is applicable in

every learning situation. The appropriate instructional approach should be based on the

characteristics of the targeted group of learners and the level of cognitive processing required

(i.e., the difficulty or complexity of the required task) in order to achieve and master the

instructional goals and objectives.

According to Connor (2002):

“Tasks requiring low-level processing (such as associations, discriminations, and rote

memorization) are most often accomplished with behaviorism. Cognitive strategies fit

with subjects that require more advanced processing, classifications, identifying rules,
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procedural exceptions, and problem solving. Issues that demand high-levels processing

are frequently learned best with humanist strategies.

The critical question is not, ‘Which is the best theory?’ but rather, ‘Which theory is

most effective in fostering mastery of specific tasks by individual learners?’ What might

be most effective when we are novice learners, meeting complex bodies of information

for the first time, may not be effective, efficient, or stimulating for learners who are more

familiar with the content.

While we can mix strategies, a renewed focus on humanist and andragogic (i. e.,

teaching based on recognizing and building on experience) practices help us function

well when optimal conditions do not exist, when situations are unpredictable, and when

we need to think on our feet. Our rapidly growing, changing, organic environments

demand solutions based on inventiveness, improvisation, dialogue, and social

negotiation.”

References

Bayer, D. (2001). Instructional theories. Retrieved from

http://online.sfsu.edu/~foreman/itec800/finalprojects/danabayer/home.html, February 4, 2008.

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Brooks, J., & Brooks, M. (1999). The case for constructivist classrooms. Retrieved from

http://www.ascd.org/ed_topics/brooks1999_intro.html, February 4, 2008.

Connor, M. L. (2002). A primer on educational psychology. Retrieved from

http://agelesslearner.com/intros/edpsych.html, February 4, 2008.

Cunia, Erin B. C. (2007). Cognitive learning theory web quest. Retrieved from

http://suedstudent.syr.edu/~ebarrett/ide621/cognitive.htm, February 1, 2008.

Hall, Jeremy J. S. B. (2002). Andragogic learning. Retrieved from

http://www.simulations.co.uk/adult.htm, February 7, 2008.

Harris, D. (1995). Cognitive learning and memory. Retrieved from

http://comp.uark.edu/~jdharris/cogmem.html, February 4, 2008.

Phillips, D. C, & Soltis, J. F. (2003). Perspectives on learning. Retrieved from

http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=rh8QRlzBozQC&dq=perspectives+on+learning+phill

ips+and+soltis&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=uOkh8hmnZk&sig=1v0lWI9omfoB17A

tsKVXO6BUagM#PPR6,M1, February 4, 2008.

Public Broadcasting System: A Science Odyssey. (1998). People and discoveries: B. F. Skinner,

1904-1990. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhskin.html,

February 7, 2008.

Wagner, K. V. (2008). Behaviorism definition. Retrieved from

http://psychology.about.com/od/bindex/g/behaviorism.htm, February 4, 2008.

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