Air Conditioning Fundamentals

LECTURE NOTE ON REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING
PART TWO To lose patience is to lose the battle-

Mahatma Gandhi
AIRCONDITIONING
1. FUNDAMENTALS OF AIR CONDITIONING
Air Conditioning
✓ It is a branch of Engineering science which deals with the study of conditioning of air.
i.e. supplying and maintaining desirable internal atmospheric conditions for human
comfort, irrespective of external conditions.
 Factors Affecting Comport Air Conditioning
✓ Temperature of air.
✓ Humidity of air
✓ Purity of air
✓ Motion of air
 HVAC & R
✓ stands for heating, ventilating, air-conditioning, and refrigerating

✓ combination of these processes is equivalent to the functions performed by air-
conditioning.
Function of air-Conditioning
Most air conditioning systems perform the following functions
1. Provide the cooling and heating energy required
2. Condition the supply air, that is, heat or cool, humidify or dehumidify, clean and
purify, and noise
3. Distribute the conditioned air, containing sufficient outdoor air, to the conditioned
space
WKU 2020/21, WOLKITE, ETHIOPIA PREPARED BY: KASAHUN D.
PART TWO 1
4. Control and maintain the indoor environmental parameters between the conditioned
space and surroundings within predetermined limits
Equipment's used in an AC system
❖ Air Conditioning unit:
✓ consist of a heat transfer surface for heating and cooling, a fan for air circulation,
and a means of cleaning the air, motor, drive, and casing.
❖ Supply duct:
✓ It directs the conditioned air from the circulating fan to the space to be air
conditioned at proper point.
❖ Supply outlets:
✓ These are grills which distribute the conditioned air evenly in the room.
❖ Return outlets:
✓ These are the openings in a room surface which allow the room air to enter the
return duct.
❖ Filters:
✓ the main factors of the filters is to remove dust, dirt and other harmful bacteria from
the air
PART TWO 2
Fig: Components of AC system
Is there any Difference between AC and Ventilation?
❖ Need of Ventilation
• Ventilation is supply of fresh air or extraction of used air without conditioning
✓ To provide a continuous supply of oxygen necessary for human existence.
✓ To remove contaminants such as:
o Carbon dioxide
o Water vapour
o Heat and smells from cooking
o Gases and vapours from industrial processes
o Odour
❖ Need for Air Conditioning
✓ Air conditioning is the supply of conditioned air or air that is intentionally cooled or
heated and humidified or dehumidified.
Air conditioning may be required in buildings which have a high heat gain and as a result a high
internal temperature. The heat gain may be from solar radiation and/or internal gains such as
people, lights and business machines.
PART TWO 3
• If the inside temperature of a space rises to above 25oC then air conditioning will probably
be necessary to maintain comfort levels.
• This internal temperature (around 25oC) may change depending on some variables such as:
✓ type of building
✓ location of building
✓ weather
✓ degree of air movement
Types of Air-Conditioning Systems
❖ Based on application/purpose
1. Comfort air conditioning

✓ It provide occupants with a comfortable and healthy indoor environment in which
to carry out their activities.
E.g.:
✓ Commercial - office buildings, stores, shopping centers, restaurants, and others.

✓ Institutional sector - schools, colleges, universities, libraries, museums,
cinemas, theaters etc.
✓ Residential - hotels, motels, apartment houses, and private homes
✓ Health care sector - hospitals, nursing homes,
✓ Transportation - aircraft, automobiles, railroad cars, buses, and cruising ships.
2. Industrial/Process air conditioning
✓ provide needed indoor environmental control for manufacturing, product storage,
or other research and development processes
E.g.:
✓ Textile mills
✓ Electronic products
✓ Precision manufacturers
✓ Pharmaceutical products
PART TWO 4
❖ Based on the season of the year

• Winter Air Conditioning System
✓ Comfort conditions are achieved by heating and humidification
• Summer Air Conditioning System

✓ Conditions are achieved by cooling and dehumidification
• All year-round Air-Conditioning System

✓ Combination of both summer and winter air conditioning system
PART TWO 5
❖ Based on capacity and the arrangement of the system
1. Window Air Conditioning

2. Split Air Conditioning
3. Packaged Air Conditioning and
4. Central Air Conditioning
The choice of which air conditioner system to use depends upon a number of factors including
✓ how large the area is to be cooled,
✓ the total heat generated inside the enclosed area, etc.
1. Window Air Conditioning
✓ It is the most commonly used air conditioner for single rooms.
✓ all the components, namely the compressor, condenser, expansion valve or coil,
evaporator and cooling coil are enclosed in a single box.
✓ The unit is fitted in a slot made in the wall of the room, or more commonly a
window sill.
PART TWO 6
Fig: Window air conditioner
2. Split Air Conditioning system

✓ Comprises of two parts: the outdoor unit and the indoor unit.
✓ The outdoor unit, fitted outside the room, houses components like the compressor,
condenser and expansion valve.
✓ The indoor unit comprises the evaporator or cooling coil and the cooling fan
✓ split units have aesthetic appeal and do not take up as much space as a window unit.
✓ can be used to cool one or two rooms.
PART TWO 7
Fig: Split air conditioner
3. Packaged Air Conditioning system

✓ if you want to cool more than two rooms or a larger space at your home or office.
✓ There are two possible arrangements with the package unit.
✓ All the components, namely the compressor, condenser (which can be air cooled or
water cooled), expansion valve and evaporator are housed in a single box.
 The cooled air is thrown by the high capacity blower, and it flows through the ducts
laid through various rooms.
 The compressor and condenser are housed in one casing.
 The compressed gas passes through individual units, comprised of the expansion
valve and cooling coil, located in various rooms.
Fig: Packaged Air Conditioner
PART TWO 8
4. Central Air Conditioning System

✓ It is used for cooling big buildings, houses, offices, entire hotels, gyms, movie theaters,
big halls, malls, huge spaces, galleries, factories etc.
✓ It is mostly applied to large-area buildings with many zones of conditioned space or to
separate buildings(putting individual units in each of the rooms is very expensive )
✓ It is comprised of a huge compressor that has the capacity to produce hundreds of tons
of air conditioning.
✓ uses chilled water or hot water from a central plant to cool and heat the air at the coils
in an air handling unit (AHU)
✓ are built-up systems assembled and installed on the site.
Fig: Central Air Conditioning System
PART TWO 9
2. PYCHROMETRY
Air in the atmosphere normally contains some water vapor (or moisture) and is referred to as
atmospheric air. Understanding of the properties of atmospheric air and the ability to analyze
various processes involving air is fundamental to air conditioning design.
Psychrometry is the study of the properties of mixtures of air and water vapour. Atmospheric air
is a mixture of many gases plus water vapour and a number of pollutants. The amount of water
vapour and pollutants vary from place to place. The pollutants have to be filtered out before
processing the air.
The moist air can be thought of as a mixture of dry air and moisture.
Fig: Atmospheric air components
Dry Air:
✓ air that contains no water vapor.
Although the amount of water vapor in the air is small, it plays a major role in human comfort.
Therefore, it is an important consideration in air-conditioning applications.
PART TWO 10
Specific and relative humidity of air
The amount of water vapor in the air can be specified in various ways.
❖ Specific humidity (humidity ratio)

✓ the mass of water vapor present in a unit mass of dry air and is denoted by ⍵
❖ Absolute humidity:
✓ It refers to the weight of water vapour present in unit volume of air.
❖ Relative humidity:
✓ The amount of moisture in the air expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount
of moisture the air can hold at the given temperature and pressure.
✓ percentage of moisture saturation in air
𝑚𝑣
∅=
𝑚𝑔
❖ Dry bulb temperature(DBT):
✓ It refers to the temperature of air measured with ordinary thermometer having its bulb
open.
✓ It is a measure of sensible heat content of the air
❖ Wet bulb temperature(WBT):
✓ For getting wet bulb temperature thermometer bulb is covered with water wet
cloth/wick moistened with water and then temperature is measured.
✓ It is a measure of the evaporating capacity of the air
Fig: Wet bulb and Dry bulb temperature measurement psychrometer
PART TWO 11
❖ Dew point temperature(DPT):

✓ The temperature at which water vapor from the air begins to form droplets and settles
or condenses on surfaces that are colder than the dew point of the air.
Examples:
✓ formation of dew on grass,

✓ condensation of water vapour on exterior surface of steel cup having cold water inside,
✓ condensation of water vapour on glass window-panes during winter season etc.
Psychrometric chart
✓ serves as a valuable aid in visualizing the air-conditioning processes
The basic features of the psychrometric chart
✓ Dry bulb temperature

✓ Wet bulb temperature
✓ Relative humidity
✓ Specific humidity
✓ Specific volume
✓ enthalpy
Examining the Psychrometric Chart
• When two properties are known, the others can be read from the chart
✓ Dry and wet bulb temperatures
✓ Relative humidity
PART TWO 12
✓ dew point temperature

✓ Enthalpy and
✓ Specific volume
Psychrometric processes
Processes commonly encountered in air conditioning are
1. Sensible heating or sensible cooling:

✓ refers to the heating or cooling without phase change i.e. heating or cooling of air without
increase or decrease of moisture content(humidity ratio).
▪ For sensible heating the air is passed over heating coils (electrical resistance type or steam
type) ,
▪ For sensible cooling the air is passed over cooling coils (such as evaporator coil of
refrigeration cycle)
2. Cooling with dehumidification:
✓ reducing air temperature along with removal of water vapour from air.
✓ Removal of moisture content can be done
PART TWO 13
o by reducing the temperature of air below dew point temperature
✓ so as to allow condensation of water vapour.
As shown on diagram
o As moist air entering is first passed over cooling coil having cool refrigerant inside,
o the water vapour present in moist air gets condensed and saturated moist air leaves
dehumidification section at pt 2.
Fig: Cooling with dehumidification process
3. Humidification:
✓ It is the process of adding moisture to the air.
✓ required during air conditioning when air being circulated in occupied space may have
little moisture in it.
Fig: Humidification process
PART TWO 14
4. Heating and humidifying:
✓ It involves the simultaneous increase in both the dry bulb temperature and humidity ratio
of the air
Fig: Heating and humidifying
Processes of Airconditioning system
Fig: Processes of Airconditioning system
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

Air conditioning systems require basic arrangement for getting refrigeration effect through cooling
coil followed by subsequent humidification/dehumidification and heating etc .
❖ Summer air conditioning

✓ E.g. for hot and dry outdoor condition
PART TWO 15
Fig: Summer Airconditioning
❖ Winter air conditioning
Fig: Winter air conditioning
Example: 1
Consider a room that contains air at 1 atm, 35oC, and 40 percent relative humidity. Using the
psychrometric chart, determine
a) the specific humidity,

b) the enthalpy,
c) the wet-bulb temperature,
d) the dew point temperature,
e) the specific volume of the air
PART TWO 16
Solution
Using the psychrometric chart, determine
a) the specific humidity,(ꞷ=0.0142 kg H2O/kg dry air )

b) the enthalpy, (h=71.5 kJ/kg dry air )
c) the wet-bulb temperature,(Twb=24oC )
d) the dew point temperature,(Tdp=19.4oC)
e) the specific volume of the air,(v=0.893 m3/kg dry air )
PART TWO 17
Example: 2
Assume that the outside air temperature is 32°C with a relative humidity φ = 60%. Use the
psychrometric chart to determine the
a) specific humidity ,ω
b) enthalpy ,h
c) wet-bulb temperature ,Twb
d) dew-point temperature ,Tdp and
e) specific volume of the dry air, v
Indicate all the values determined on the chart.
Answer
Using the psychrometric chart
a) specific humidity ω [18 gm-moisture/kg-air],

b) enthalpy h [78 kJ/kg-air],
c) wet-bulb temperature Twb [25.5°C],
d) dew-point temperature Tdp [23°C], and
e) specific volume of the dry air v [0.89m3/kg].
PART TWO 18
Example: 3
Outside air at 35°C and 60% relative humidity is to be conditioned by cooling along with
dehumidification and heating to bring the air to within the "comfort zone". Using the Psychrometric
Chart
a) neatly plot the required air conditioning process and

b) estimate the amount of moisture removed
c) the heat removed, and
d) the amount of heat added.
PART TWO 19
Answer:
a) neatly plot the required air conditioning process and
b) estimate the amount of moisture removed [11.5g-H20/kg-dry-air],
c) the heat removed [(1)-(2), qcool = 48kJ/kg-dry-air], and
d) the amount of heat added [(2)-(3), qheat = 10kJ/kg-dry-air].
CHECK POINT
Hot dry air at 40°C and 10% relative humidity passes through an evaporative cooler. Water is
added as the air passes through a series of wicks and the mixture exits at 27°C. Using the
psychrometric chart determine
a) the outlet relative humidity,
b) the amount of water added, and
c) the lowest temperature that could be realized.
PART TWO 20
3. Inside And Outside Design Conditions

Design and analysis of air conditioning systems involves
✓ selection of suitable inside and outside design conditions,

✓ estimation of the required capacity of cooling or heating equipment,
✓ selection of suitable cooling/heating system,
✓ selecting supply conditions,
✓ design of air transmission and distribution systems etc.
Selection of inside design conditions:
The required inside design conditions depend on the intended use of the building. Air conditioning
is required either for
✓ providing suitable comfort conditions for the occupants (e.g. comfort air conditioning), or
✓ providing suitable conditions for storage of perishable products (e.g. in cold storages) or
✓ conditions for a process to take place or for products to be manufactured (e.g. industrial air
conditioning).
The required inside conditions for cold storage and industrial air conditioning applications vary
widely depending on the specific requirement. However, the required inside conditions for comfort
air conditioning systems remain practically same irrespective of the size, type, location, use of the
air conditioning building etc., as this is related to the thermal comfort of the human beings.
Thermal comfort:
Thermal comfort is defined as “that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the
thermal environment”.
The process of conversion of chemical energy contained in food into heat and work is called as
“metabolism”. The rate at which the chemical energy is converted into heat and work is called as
“metabolic rate”. Knowledge of metabolic rate of the occupants is required as this forms a part of
the cooling load of the air conditioned building.
PART TWO 21
The metabolic rate depends on the activity. It is normally measured in the unit “met”. A met is
defined as the metabolic rate per unit area of a sedentary person and is found to be equal to about
58.2 W/m2.
Fig: Metabolic rate for different activities
Factors affecting thermal comfort:
Thermal comfort is affected by several factors. These are:
• Physiological factors
✓ such as age, activity, sex and health.
• Insulating factor
✓ due to clothing.
The unit for measuring the resistance offered by clothes is called as “clo”.
1 clo is equal to a resistance of about 0.155 m2.K/W.
• Environmental factors.
✓ Important factors are the dry bulb temperature, relative humidity, air motion
and surrounding surface temperature.
PART TWO 22
Based on the chart ASHARE makes the following recommendations:
❖ Inside design conditions for winter:

✓ Top between 20.0 to 23.5oC at a RH of 60%
✓ Top between 20.5 to 24.5oC at a DBT of 20oC
❖ Inside design conditions for summer:
✓ Top between 22.5 to 26.0oC at a RH of 60%
✓ Top between 23.5 to 27.0oC at a DBT of 20oC
Fig: ASHRAE comfort chart for a sedentary person (activity ≈ 1.2 met)
Selection of outside design conditions:
The ambient temperature and moisture content vary from hour-to-hour and from day-to-day and
from place-to-place.
The design outside conditions also depend on the following factors:
✓ Type of the structure, i.e., whether it is of heavy construction, medium or light

✓ Insulation characteristics of the building
✓ Area of glass or other transparent surfaces
✓ Nature of occupancy
✓ Daily range (difference between maximum and minimum temperatures in a given day)
PART TWO 23
❖ Outdoor design conditions for summer:
Selection of maximum dry and wet bulb temperatures at a particular location leads to excessively
large cooling capacities as the maximum temperature generally persists for only a few hours in a
year. Hence it is recommended that the outdoor design conditions for summer be chosen based
on the values of dry bulb and mean coincident wet bulb temperature that is equaled or exceeded
0.4, 1.0 or 2.0 % of total hours in an year.
These values for major locations in the world are available in data books, such as AHRAE
handbooks. Whether to choose the 0.4 % value or 1.0 % value or 2.0 % value depends on specific
requirements. In the absence of any special requirements, the 1.0% or 2% value may be considered
for summer outdoor design conditions.
❖ Outdoor design conditions for winter:
Similar to summer, it is not economical to design a winter air conditioning for the worst condition
on record as this would give rise to very high heating capacities. Hence it is recommended that the
outdoor design conditions for winter be chosen based on the values of dry bulb temperature that is
equaled or exceeded 99.6 or 99.0 % of total hours in an year.
Generally the 99.0% value is adequate, but if the building is made of light-weight materials, poorly
insulated or has considerable glass or space temperature is critical, then the 99.6% value is
recommended.
PART TWO 24
4. Airconditioning COOLING LOAD Calculation

‘The more exact the information, the more accurate will be the load
estimated’
Definition
It is the total heat required to be removed from the space in order to bring it at the desired
temperature by the air conditioning and refrigeration equipment.
Necessity of cooling load ?
The objectives of cooling load calculation are as follows
✓ To estimate capacity or size of plant/equipment.

✓ To determine be the optimum rate
o at which heat needs to be removed from space to establish thermal equilibrium
& maintain a pre-determined inside conditions
✓ To know peak time design loads (cooling/heating).
Load Components(sources of heat gain)
❑ External heat gains

 Thermal energy transferred from outside hot medium to the inside of the room.
 The heat transfer takes place from conduction
✓ through external walls,
✓ top roof and bottom ground,
✓ solar radiation through windows and doors,
✓ ventilation and
✓ infiltration.
❑ Internal heat gains
✓ people,
✓ electric equipment and light.
PART TWO 25
Fig: Internal and external heat gain
Critical Design Parameters
The during estimating the cooling load are
i. Design conditions(outdoor)
✓ Outdoor temperature and relative humidity
✓ Latitude
✓ Elevation
ii. Internal conditions(indoor)
✓ Indoor temperature and relative humidity
iii. Orientation/Location:
✓ N,S,W,E,NE,NW…..
iv. Building enclosure
✓ Insulation levels of walls, ceilings and floors
✓ Window specification
✓ Thermal conductivity
✓ Solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC)
✓ Infiltration and ventilation levels
✓ Interior and exterior shading
v. Internal loads
✓ Number of occupants
PART TWO 26
✓ Electronics, lighting and appliances
CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT GAIN
I. Sensible heat gain

✓ A heat that directly add a temperature of to be conditioned environment without
changing its air moisture content of air.
II. Latent heat gain
✓ A heat that changes the moisture content of air
Sensible heat gain
✓ by conduction through exterior walls, floors, ceilings, doors and windows

✓ from solar radiation.
It consists of heat
i. Directly through glass of windows, ventilators or doors, and

ii. Absorbed by walls and roofs and later on transferred to the room by conduction.
✓ through interior partition from rooms which are not conditioned.
✓ by lights, motors, machinery, cooking operations, industrial processes etc.
✓ liberated by the occupants.
✓ leaks in (infiltrating air)
✓ through the walls of ducts carrying conditioned air
✓ from the fan work.
Latent heat gain
✓ due to moisture in the outside air entering by infiltration.

✓ due to condensation of moisture from occupants.
✓ due to condensation of any process such as cooking foods which takes place within the
conditioned space.
✓ through permeable walls or partitions from the outside or from adjoining regions where
the water vapour pressure is higher.
PART TWO 27
✓ Total heat load to be removed by the air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment is

the sum of sensible and latent heat loads
Heat gains from the sun can lead to increases in internal temperatures beyond the limits of
comfort.This is usually above 25oC dry bulb temperature.
It is therefore necessary to determine the amount of solar radiation that is Tiansmitted into
buildings through;
✓ Windows,
✓ walls,
✓ roof,
✓ floor and
✓ admitting external air into the building(Infiltration).
Several measures can be adopted to reduce solar radiation in buildings. These are
✓ external and
✓ internal shading and
✓ by careful building design.
✓ Natural vegetation such as tall Tiees can also reduce solar heat gains.
Buildings can be orientated so that there is less window area facing directly South. These are just
some of the ways to reduce solar radiation.
CALCULATION OF COOLING LOAD
The load on an air-conditioning system can be divided into the following sections:
i. Sensible Transmission through glass.

ii. Solar Gain through glass.
iii. Internal Heat gains
iv. Heat gain through walls.
v. Heat gain through roof.
vi. Ventilation and/ or Infiltration gains.
PART TWO 28
Sensible Transmission through glass.
The heat gain through the glass windows is divided into two parts since there is a heat gain
✓ due to temperature difference between outside and inside

✓ due to solar radiation shining through windows.
Sensible Transmission Through Glass
This is the Solar Gain due to differences between inside and outside temperatures. In very warm
countries this can be quite significant.
This gain only applies to materials of negligible thermal capacity i.e. glass.
Qg = Ag . Ug (To- Ti)
Where;
o Qg = Sensible heat gain through glass (W)

o Ag = Surface area of glass (m2)
o Ug = 'U' value for glass (W/m2 oc)
o To = Outside air temperature (oc)..
o Ti = Inside room air temperature (oc)
Solar Gain Through glass
This gain is when the sun shines though glass.
The cooling loads per meter squared window glass area have been tabulated in stanadrds for
various; locations, times, dates and orientations.
PART TWO 29
Fig: Energy absorbed,reflected and transmitted through glass
These figures are then multiplied by correction factors for; shading and cooling load factor.
Heat load is found from;
Qsg = CLF . SCF . SHGF . Ag
where
o Qsg = Actual cooling load (W)

o SHGF = Tabulated cooling load (W/m2)
PART TWO 30
o CLF = cooling load factor from Table .

o SCF = Shading factor.
o Ag = Area of glass (m2)
The Cooling load factor(CLF) and Shading factors (SCF) are given in the Table below for various
types of glass, building weights and for open and closed blinds.
Table: Cooling load factor and shading factor for glass
Cooling load factor (CLF)

Building Single Glazing Double glazing
Weight Horizontal blind Horizontal blind
Light 0.91 0.91
Heavy 0.83 0.9
Shading factors (SCF)
Building Single Glazing Double glazing
Type of glass
Weight Open horizontal blind Closed horizontal blind Open horizonta blind Closed horizontal blind
Light 1 0.77 0.95 0.74
Clear 6mm
Heavy 0.97 0.77 0.94 0.76
Light 0.86 0.77 0.66 0.55
Bronze tinted 6mm
Heavy 0.85 0.77 0.66 0.57
Light 0.78 0.73 0.54 0.47
Bronze tinted 10mm
Heavy 0.77 0.73 0.53 0.48
Light 0.64 0.57 0.48 0.41
Reflecting
Heavy 0.62 0.57 0.47 0.41
Internal Heat Gains -
These gains are from occupants, lights, equipment and machinery,
o Occupants
Sensible and latent heat gains can be obtained from Standard tables
PART TWO 31
Table: heat gain due to occupants for different activities
Conditions Typical building Sensible Heat Gain (Watts) Latent Heat Gain (Watts)
Seated very light work Offices, hotels, apartments 70 45
Moderate office work Offices, hotels, apartments 75 55
Standing, light work; Department store, retail store 75 55
Walking standing Bank 75 70
Sedentary work Restaurant 80 80
Light bench work Factory 80 140
Athletics Gymnasium 210 315
o Lighting
o Elecrical equipment
o PC,Desktop and monitors
o Laser Printers and Photocopiers –
o Electric Motors
o Cooking equipment …..etc
Heat load is found from;
Q int. = Heat from Occupants + Heat from Lighting + Heat from Electrical Equipment
+ Heat from Cooking + ……
Heat Gain Through Walls
This is the unsteady-state heat flow through a wall due to the varying intensity of solar radiation
on the outer surface.
Thermal Capacity
The heat flow through a wall is complicated by the presence of thermal capacity, so that some of
the heat passing through it is stored, being released at a later time.
PART TWO 32
Fig: Thermal energy transmission through opaque surfaces
Thick heavy walls with a high thermal capacity will reduce temperature swings considerably,
whereas thin light walls with a small thermal capacity will have little reduction effect, and
fluctuations in outside surface temperature will be apparent almost immediately.
Mean gain through wall,
Q = A . U ( To - Ti)
where,
o Q = heat gain through wall
2
o A = area of wall (m )
2
o U = overall thermal permittance (W/m oC)
o To = outside temperature (oC)
o Ti = constant dry resultant temperature (oC). dry bulb is used.
Heat Gain Through Roof
The heat gain through a roof
QRoof = A U [( To - Ti)
PART TWO 33
Ventilation and/or Infiltration Gains
Heat load is found frominfiltration
𝐴𝐶𝐻∗𝑉∗(𝑇𝑜−𝑇𝑖)
𝑄𝑠 =
3
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚𝑜 ∗ 𝐶𝑝 ∗ (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 )
= 𝑉𝑜 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝐶𝑝, 𝑚 ∗ (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖)
where
o Qsinfil = Sensible heat gain due to infiltration(W)

o ACH = Air Change Hour (1/h)
o V = volume of room (m3)
o To = outside air temperature (oC)
o Ti = room air temperature (oC)
Recommended Infiltration rates are 0.5 air change per hour(ACH) for most air-conditioning cases.
Sensible heat gain
Q sensible = Qg +Qsg +Qint. + QWall + Q Roof + Qsinfil
In the majority of cases, by far the greatest external fluctuating component is the solar heat gain
through the windows.Therefore, it will be this gain which determines when the total heat gain to
the room is a maximum.
Heat gains may be calculated and displayed in table form as shown below
Latent heat Gains
Infiltration
𝑄𝑙 = 0.8 ∗ 𝐴𝐶𝐻 ∗ 𝑉 ∗ (𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖)
PART TWO 34
𝑄𝑙 = 𝑚𝑜 ∗ ℎ𝑓𝑔 ∗ (𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖 )
= 𝑉 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ ℎ𝑓𝑔(𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖)
Where;
o Qlinfil = Infiltration latent heat gain (W)

o ACH = Number of air changes per hour (h-1)
o V = Room volume (m3)
o 𝜔𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑖 = Moisture content of outside and room air (g/kg dry air.)
o hfg = latent heat of vaporization of water (KJ/kg K)
Outside air sensible heat
OASH = 0.02044 *V(m3/min)* (To – Ti)
Outside air latent heat
OALH = 50 *V(m3/min)* (𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖 )
Latent heat gains are comprised of
✓ from occupants and

✓ from natural Infiltration fresh air
Q latent = Qoccupant + Qint + Ql infil
Total Room Load From Heat Gains
PART TWO 35
EXAMPLE
A laboratory 30 m × 20 m × 4 m high is to be air conditioned. The 30m wall faces North. The
North wall has two doors of 2.5 m × 3 m each. The South wall has four glass windows of 2 m ×
1.5 m each. The East and West walls also have four windows of the same size.
The lighting load is 15 W fluorescent per m2 floor area. The infiltration is one air change. The
solar heat gain factors (SHGF) for South, East and West glass are 150, 50 and 350 W/m2
respectively. The overall heat transfer coefficients for roof, floor, walls, door and windows are 2.5,
2, 3, 1.5 and 6 W/m2 K respectively.
The corrected equivalent temperature differences(CLTD) for North, South, East, West walls, roof
and floor are 12, 15, 12, 17, 20 and 2.50C respectively. There are 100 persons with sensible and
latent heat loads of 75W and 55W each respectively. The ventilation requirement is 0.3 m3/min
per person. The outdoor condition is 430C dry bulb temperature and 0.0277 kg/kg of dry air of
humidity ratio. The indoor condition is 250C dry bulb temperature and 0.01 kg/kg of dry air of
humidity ratio. Use a factor of 1.25 for fluorescent light.
 Determine room sensible heat load and room latent heat load and size cooling capacity
Given :
• L = 30 m ; B = 20 m ; H = 4 m; Door size = 2.5 m × 3 m ; Window size =2 m ×1.5 m ;

QSL = 15 W/m2 floor area ; No. of air changes(ACH) = 1 ; SHGF for South glass = 150
W/m2 ; SHGF for East glass = 50 W/m2 ;
• SHGF for West glass = 350 W/m2 ; U walls = 2.5 W/m2 K ; U roof = 2 W/m2 K ; U floor = 3
W/m2 K ; Udoor = 1.5 W/m2 K ; U windows = 6 W/m2 K ; (CLTD)t e for north wall = 120C ;
(CLTD)te for South wall = 150C ; (CLTD)te for East wall = 120C ; (CLTD)te for West wall
= 170C ; (CLTD)te for roof = 200C ; (CLTD)te for floor = 2.50 C ; No.of persons = 100 ; Q
s per person = 75W ; QL per person = 55W ; v1 = 0.3 m3/min per person ; td1 = 430C ; W1
= 0.0277 kg/kg of dry air ; td2 = 250C ; W2 = 0.01 kg/kg of dry air ; Allowance factor of the
fluorescent light = 1.25 ; safety factor = 5%; Factor for fan power = 5% ; Factor for leakage
of supply air = 1%; Factor for heat leakage to supply air duct = 0.5%
PART TWO 36
ANSWER
Estimation of sensible heat gain
• Area of one door = 2.5 ×3 = 7.5 m2

• Area of one window = 2 ×1.5 = 3 m2
• Solar heat gain through South glass
Q = Area of four glass windows * SHGF for South glass
= (2*1.5 * 4 glass) 150 = 1800W
• Similarly, solar heat gain through East glass
Q = Area of four glass windows * SHGF for East glass
= (2*1.5 * 4 glass) 50 = 600W
• Solar heat gain through West glass
Q = Area of four glass windows * SHGF for West glass
= (2*1.5 * 4) 350 = 4200W
Total solar heat gain (sensible) through South, East and West glasses
PART TWO 37
= 1800 + 600 + 4200 = 6600 W = 6.6 KW
Total sensible heat gain from persons
• Total Sensible heat from occupants
Q = QS per person * No. of persons
= 75 W * 100 = 7500W =7.5KW
• Total latent heat gain from occupants
Q = QL per person * No. of persons
= 55 W* 100 = 5500W =5.5KW
We know that the amount of infiltrated air,
V1 = (L*W*H*ACH)/60
= (30*20*4*1)/60
= 40 m3/min where ACH =1
• Sensible heat gain due to infiltration air,
Qinfil,s = 0.02044 V1 (td1 - td2) = 0.02044 * 40 *( 43 – 25 ) = 14.7KW
• Latent heat gain due to infiltration air
Qinfil,l = 50 V1 (W1 – W2) = 50 * 40*(0.0277 – 0.01) = 35.4KW
We know that volume of ventilation or outside air
o Volume of ventilation(v) = 0.3 m3/min/person

= 0.3 * 100
= 30 m3/min
• Outside air sensible heat,
PART TWO 38
OASH = 0.02044 *V* (td1 – td2)
= 0.02044 * 30 (43 - 25) = 11.04KW and
• Outside air latent heat,
OALH = 50 *V* (W1 – W2)
= 50 * 30 (0.0277 – 0.01) = 26.6KW
Sensible heat gain due to lighting
Q = Total wattage of lights * Use factor * Allowance factor
= 15 (30 * 20) *1 * 1.25 =11250 W = 11.25KW
RSH = [Heat gain from walls, roof, floor and windows + Solar heat gain through glasses +
Sensible heat gain due to ventilation (OASH) + Sensible heat gain due to infiltration air +
Sensible heat gain due to lighting]
=[44.788 +6.6 +7.5 + 14.7 + 11.04 + 11.25]
=95.9 kW
Total room latent heat,
RLH = [Latent heat gain from persons + Latent heat gain due to infiltration air + Latent heat
gain due to ventilation(OALH)]
= [5.5 + 35.4 + 26.6] = 67.5 kW
Total room heat gain = Sensible heat gain + Latent heat gain
=95.9 kW+ 67.5 kW = 163.4 kW = 46.68 TR
Since the standard size nearer to 46.68 is 50 TR. So the cooling capacity of the Airconditioner
should be 50 TR.
PART TWO 39
PART TWO 40
PART TWO 41
PART TWO 42
5. AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
In order to maintain required space conditions in the indoors, energy has to be either supplied
or extracted from the conditioned space.
The energy in the form of sensible as well as latent heat has to be
• supplied to the space in winter and

• extracted from the conditioned space in case of summer.
So decision making is very critical function to select right type of HVAC system. HVAC
system consists of an air conditioning plant and a thermal distribution system.
Fig: Schematic diagram of summer A/C system
• The air conditioning (A/C) plant acts either as a heat source (for winter) or as a heat sink
(for summer).
• Air, water (hydronic) or both are used as media for transferring energy from the air
conditioning plant to the conditioned space.
• A thermal distribution system is required to circulate the media between the conditioned
space and the A/C plant. Adequate Fresh air has also to be supplied by A/C plant to the
spaces to maintain Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
CLASSIFICATION OF HVAC SYSTEMS
Based on the working fluid used in the thermal distribution system, HVAC systems can be
classified as:
PART TWO 43
A. All Air system

B. All water system
C. Air-Water system
A. All Air Systems
Air is used as the media in an all air system. Air transports thermal energy from the conditioned
space to the HVAC plant. In these systems air is processed in the A/C plant namely AHU (Air
Handling Unit) which consists of
• Dampers,
• Mixing chambers,
• Filters,
• Cooling/ Heating coils,
• Humidifiers,
• Fans/ Blowers etc. in a packaged cabinet.
Fig: Schematic of all air system
This processed air is then supplied to the conditioned spaces through Air Distribution system
which consists Ducts, Dampers and Diffusers.
All air systems can be further classified into
i. Single duct system

✓ It can provide either cooling or heating using the same duct, but not both heating and
cooling simultaneously.
ii. Dual duct system
✓ It can provide both cooling and heating simultaneously.
PART TWO 44
Single duct
• Single duct, constant volume, single zone system

• Single duct, constant volume, multi zone system
• Single duct, Variable volume (VAV) system
Single duct, constant volume, single zone system
▪ In a single duct system, there is only one supply duct, through which either hot air or
cold air flows, but not both simultaneously.
▪ In a constant volume system, the volumetric flow rate of supply air is always
maintained constant.
▪ It is a single zone system as the control is based on temperature and Relative humidity
(% RH) measured at a single point, as shown in Fig below.
Fig: Single duct constant single zone system
Here a zone refers to a space conditions controlled by one thermostat. However, the single zone
may consist of a single room or one floor or whole building with several rooms.
The cooling/ heating capacity in the single zone, constant volume systems is varied by varying the
supply air temperature and humidity, while keeping the supply airflow rate constant.
Single duct, constant volume, Multi zone system
For very large buildings having variety of spaces and zones differing in requirements of cooling
or heating, it is not feasible to provide several individual single zone systems for every zone or
space. Constant volume of supply air is supplied to every zone. Reheat coil is controlled by room
PART TWO 45
thermostat as per the zone requirements. Multi zone system with Reheat terminal units as shown
below.
Fig: Schematic of single duct, constant volume, multi zone system
Single duct, variable volume (VAV) system
In this system, Supply air temperature is kept constant and volume flow rate of supply air is varied
as the cooling or heating load varies in the space or zone. Each zone is provided with VAV box
consisting of zone damper and thermostat. Thermostat gives signal to zone damper of VAV box,
which governs the supply air flow to the zone
Fig: Schematic of single duct, variable volume (VAV) system
Advantages of VAV systems:
✓ Since supply air flow is varied as per the load, low energy is consumed due to low fan
power as compared to full capacity running of fan in constant volume system
✓ Since air temperature is maintained constant, energy is saved in cooling system as air is
not required to cool to very low temperature and reheat again.
PART TWO 46
Drawbacks of VAV systems:
✓ At low load conditions, VAV supplies less fresh air, causing problems of Indoor air quality,
ventilation and room air distribution.
✓ Precise humidity control is quite difficult in VAV systems.
Fig: Schematic of Dual duct, constant volume system
Dual duct
• Dual duct, constant volume system

• Dual duct, variable volume (VAV) system
The dual-duct system employs two air ducts:
✓ one cold air duct and

✓ one warm air duct from the air-handler to the conditioned spaces.
The total volume of air supplied to each zone remains constant; however, the supply air
temperature varies depending upon load.
Dual duct and multi zone systems can provide both heating and cooling simultaneously. The
system is well suited for providing temperature control of individual spaces or zones. Return
air is accomplished through a single duct system.
PART TWO 47
Fig: Dual duct constant volume system
Advantages of Dual Duct Systems:
✓ Cooling in some zones and heating in other zones can be achieved simultaneously;
✓ Good temperature and humidity control - system is very responsive to variations in the
zone load, thus it is possible to maintain required conditions precisely;
✓ Zoning of central equipment is not required;
✓ Adaptable to either constant volume or VAV systems;
✓ Since total airflow rate to each zone is constant, it is possible to maintain proper IAQ and
room air distribution.
✓ No seasonal changeover is necessary.
Disadvantages of Dual Duct Systems:
✓ Occupies more space for running of two ducts have to be sized to handle the entire air flow
rate, if required.
✓ High first cost for installation of two supply ducts throughout the building;
✓ Not very energy efficient due to the need for simultaneous cooling and heating of the air
streams.
✓ Large number of mixing boxes to maintain;
✓ Difficult to use economizer cycle;
✓ Does not operate as economically as other VAV systems.
Advantages of All Air systems:
PART TWO 48
✓ Effective Room air distribution and Ventilation is possible under widely varying load
conditions
✓ Precise control is possible by use of high class controls.
✓ Simultaneous cooling and heating can be provided by dual duct system. Also, switching
between summer and winter mode is quite easy in All air systems.
✓ AHU which is a complete package can be remotely located, well away from conditioned
spaces. It helps to reduce noise levels in occupied spaces.
Disadvantages of All Air systems:
✓ Since systems are quite large in size, require separate spaces like AHU Room.
✓ It reduces use of effective floor space.
✓ Particularly in high rise buildings, it is difficult to provide long runs of ducts, as AHUs are
located either on roof or basement.
✓ Difficult to install in existing buildings, as large space is required in false ceiling to lay the
ducts
✓ Testing, Adjusting, Balancing may be very difficult task in case of VAV systems
Applications of All Air systems:
✓ Precision HVAC applications such as

• IT Data centers,
• Research Labs,
• Process industries,
• Clean rooms,
• Operation Theatres,
• Hospitals etc. where accurate and precise control of space environment is required.
✓ Theatres, Auditorium, Functional halls, Retail stores etc. where loads are uniform with
small external loads.
✓ Large corporate buildings with varied requirements of heating and cooling which can be
served by Dual duct systems with simultaneous cooling and heating.
✓ Multi zone All air systems are suitable for Offices, classrooms, hotels, ships etc. where
individual control is required.
PART TWO 49
B. All Water systems
Water is used as working fluid that transports thermal energy between conditioned space and A/C
plant. Chilled water is circulated for cooling while Hot water is circulated through coils for space
heating. These systems are also known as Chilled water systems for cooling applications.
Fig: All water system
FCU is a small package comprising a fan/ blower, cooling/ heating coil, air filters, louvers,
condensate drain pipe etc.. Chilled water is circulated through finned tube coils. Fan/ blower
draws in the warm air from conditioned space.
Figure 8. Components of FCU
Warm air passes over cooling coils, where it is cooled and dehumidified to supply conditions.
Condensate is collected in drain pan after dehumidification and then discharged through
condensate drain pipe.
Mostly FCUs are ceiling mounted in the false ceiling. Capacity is controlled by varying chilled
water flow rate. Room thermostat senses and signals the variation in space temperature to control
valves to regulate chilled water flow.
PART TWO 50
Based on number of pipes used in system, they are classified as
i. Two pipe system,

ii. Three pipe system and
iii. Four pipe system.
Two pipe system
✓ have single hot or cold water and single return pipe system
Fig: Two pipe system
Three pipe systems
✓ have separate chilled (cold)water and hot water supplies with a common return
Fig: Three pipe system
Four pipe system
✓ Consists of two supply pipelines – one for cold water and one for hot water; and two return
water pipelines.
PART TWO 51
Fig: Four pipe system
Advantages of All Water systems:
✓ All water system needs very less space as compared to all air systems for same capacity.
Hence, pipe sizes are very small as compared to large sized ducts.
✓ It is more suitable for Individual room/ zone control.
✓ Simultaneous cooling and heating is possible with 4-pipe system
✓ It can be easily installed in the old buildings without making much changes in the existing
space setting.
Disadvantages of All water systems:
✓ Multiplicity of fan coil units means a great deal of maintenance work and cost.
✓ Control of space humidity is limited, as only cooling and dehumidification occurs and
FCUs do not have humidifiers or reheat coils.
✓ Separate ventilation system must be used to supply fresh air, which adds to cost. Also
control of ventilation air is not precise.
✓ Condensate may cause problems in ceiling or walls if condensate drain fails.
Applications of All water systems:
✓ are suitable for use as low cost central HVAC systems in multi zone High Rise commercial
applications.
✓ it is much easier to carry water through small sized pipes than air through very big sized
ducts across farther heights
PART TWO 52
✓ It is very effective system in certain applications where space extremely limited, such as
narrow ceiling and shafts. Buildings which were originally not designed for HVAC
systems.
✓ In case of Individual room control as required in hotels, multi-story apartments, offices etc.
all water systems are more famous.
C. Air-Water systems
Air water system employs best features of all air and all water systems. Combination air-water
system distributes both chilled water and /or hot water and conditioned air from a central system
to the individual spaces. Terminal units in each zone provide cooling or heating to that zone
Fig: Air water system
Normally terminal unit like FCU keeps on cooling the room air again and again with the help of
cooling coil circulating chilled water.
Therefore
• sensible cooling load is handled by water system.
PART TWO 53
• Ventilation air is supplied by central AHU of air system.

• AHU supplies cooled and dehumidified(summer) fresh air which can take care of room
latent loads.
• Similarly, in winter system heated and humidified fresh air is supplied by AHU and hot
water circulates through heating coil of terminal unit.
Advantages of Air-Water systems
✓ Simultaneous heating and cooling is possible in air-water system.

✓ Lot of space is saved, as only ventilation air is supplied through ducts and chilled/ hot water
is passed through pipes.
✓ Economic control of individual zones is possible using room thermostats which can either
regulate secondary air or secondary water in FCUs.
✓ Since there is no latent load on cooling coil, troubles due to condensation do not occur.
✓ Servicing, Repair, Replacement, Maintenance works etc. are relatively easier than all water
systems.
Disadvantages of Air- Water systems
✓ Constant supply of fresh air has to be supplied to all zones, no matter whether spaces are
occupied are not. Because control is only for cooling/ heating coil through room thermostat.
✓ As systems are complicated with greater extent of controls, normally air-water systems are
costlier than all water systems.
Applications of Air water systems:
✓ It is much suitable for retrofitting of existing buildings, where there is space restriction.
✓ It is very good solution for buildings with large sensible loads.
✓ It can be used where close control of humidity in the space is not necessary
✓ It serves well for large office buildings, hotels, lodges etc.
Selection criteria of AC systems
HVAC design engineer must consider various factors while selecting the from different systems.
• Application
PART TWO 54
Application wise Air conditioning is either for Human comfort or Process control. It is
further classified as Residential, Commercial, Industrial Air conditioning.
• Special requirements of the process,

• Space available,
• Load variations,
• Operating reliability,
• Energy conservation and
• Total cost etc.
PART TWO 55
6. DUCT WORK
Definition of duct
• conduits or passages used in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) to deliver
and remove air.
The needed airflows include, for example, supply air, return air, and exhaust air. Ducts commonly
also deliver ventilation air as part of the supply air. As such, air ducts are one method of ensuring
acceptable indoor air quality as well as thermal comfort.
CLASSIFICATION OF DUCT
Duct systems are often divided into three pressure classifications:
• Low Pressure Systems

✓ where fan static pressures are less than 750 Pa and duct velocities in general
less than 1500 fpm (7.5 m/s)
• Medium Pressure Systems
✓ where fan static pressures are in the range 750 - 1500 Pa and duct velocities in
general less than 2500 fpm (12.5 m/s)
• High Pressure Systems
✓ where fan static pressures are in the range 1500 - 2500 Pa and duct velocities in
general less than 4000 fpm (20 m/s)
DUCT SHAPES
Ducts commonly used for carrying air are of round, square, or rectangular shape. All have
advantages and disadvantages and find applications where one is definitely superior to the other.
Fig: Duct shapes
PART TWO 56
Round Ducts
The duct shape that is the most efficient (offers the least resistance) in conveying moving air is a
round duct, because it has the greatest cross-sectional area and a minimum contact surface.
Some of the advantages of round ductwork include:
• lower pressure drops, thereby requiring less fan horsepower to move the air and,
consequently, smaller equipment.
• less surface area and requires less insulation when externally wrapped.
• available in longer lengths than rectangular ducts, thereby eliminating costly field
joints.
• The acoustic performance of round and oval ducts is superior because their curved
surfaces allow less breakout noise. The low-frequency sound is well contained in round
ducts.
Rectangular Ducts
Square or rectangular ducts fit better to building construction. They fit above ceilings and into
walls, and they are much easier to install between joists and studs.
Fig: Rectangular duct
Disadvantages of rectangular ducts are as follows:
• They create higher pressure drop.

• They use more kilograms of metal for the same air-flow rate as round ducts.
• Their joints are more difficult to seal.
• Those with high aspect ratio (width to height ratio) can transmit excessive noise if
not properly supported
PART TWO 57
Oval Ducts
Flat oval ducts have smaller height requirements than round ducts and retain most of the
advantages of the round ducts. However, fittings for flat oval ducts are difficult to fabricate or
modify in the field. Other disadvantages include:
• Difficulty of handling and shipping larger sizes;

• Tendency of these ducts to become more round under pressure; and,
• In large aspect ratios, difficulties of assembling oval slip joints.
Fig: oval shaped duct
Duct Materials
Ducting is generally formed by folding sheet metal into the desired shape.
Metal ducts
 are made from sheet metal (galvanized or stainless steel, copper, aluminum), cut and
shaped to the required geometry for the air distribution system.
 Since metal is a good thermal conductor, such ducts require thermal insulation
Glass wool duct boards
 These are ducts made from high density glass wool board (glass in the form
of fine fibers.
shaped from the boards, by cutting and folding in order, to obtain the required geometry required
Metal ducts
 are made from sheet metal (galvanized or stainless steel, copper, aluminum), cut and
shaped to the required geometry for the air distribution system.
 Since metal is a good thermal conductor, such ducts require thermal insulation
PART TWO 58
Glass wool duct boards

 These are ducts made from high density glass wool board (glass in the form
of fine fibers.
shaped from the boards, by cutting and folding in order, to obtain the required geometry required
Fig: Glass wool duct

Plastic ducts
✓ ducts are made from plastic or foam boards, shaped by cutting and folded to produce
the required cross sectional geometry.
o Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP)
o Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
o Fabric
✓ Boards are faced usually with an aluminum coating both internally and external.
✓ The main drawback is their fire classification.
Fig: Plastic duct Fig: Flexible duct
Flexible ducts
✓ Usually consist of two aluminum and polyester concentric tubes
✓ Their use is generally limited to short lengths, due to high pressure drop-off and the
acoustic problems
✓ they are mainly used to connect main air duct and terminal units (diffusers, grids).
PART TWO 59
Equivalent Diameter (Deq)
It is the diameter of a circular duct that will give the same pressure drop at the same air flow as the
rectangular duct. From ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook, the following equations may be used
to convert rectangular and flat oval ducts to and from round.
where,
p = perimeter of oval duct (mm.)
A = cross-sectional area (mm2)
a = length of major axis (mm.)
b = length of minor axis (mm.)
Total Pressure, Velocity Pressure, and Static Pressure
Air flow through a duct system creates three types of pressures: static, dynamic (velocity), and
total.
1. Static pressure:
It is the pressure that causes air in the duct to flow. Static pressure is the outward push of air against
duct surfaces and is a measure of resistance when air moves through an object like duct work. It
acts equally in all directions and is independent of velocity. Pressure in the ductwork is measured
in ‘mm’ of water column (mm-H2O).
It is the air pressure in the duct, which is used for fan selection.
PART TWO 60
2. Velocity pressure:
Velocity pressure is the pressure caused by air in motion. It is the pressure generated by the velocity
and weight of the air, which is used for measuring the flow (m3/s) in a system.
v2
VP = ρ
2
3. Total Pressure:
Total pressure is the algebraic sum of velocity pressure and static pressure.
TP = VP + SP
TP = Total Pressure
VP = Velocity Pressure
SP = Static Pressure
It is used to find velocity pressure. Static pressure plus velocity pressure equals total pressure.
Total Pressure determines the actual mechanical energy that must be supplied to the system.
DUCT SIZING METHODS
1. Equal friction method

2. Equal velocity method
3. Static regain method
Equal friction method
The most widely used method to size ducting is the equal friction method. This method sizes the
ducts for a constant “Friction drop per unit length” of the duct system,
Procedure:
a. Select maximum air velocity in main duct after fan outlet.

b. Enter the friction chart knowing the volume flow rate and velocity to determine the friction
rate per unit duct length and select the diameter (referring a chart ).
c. From the friction rate obtained in the previous step, use the same value to determine
diameters for all other sections of the ductwork.
PART TWO 61
d. The total friction loss in the duct system is then calculated by multiplying the friction loss
per unit length to the equivalent length of the most critical path of the ductwork having
maximum resistance.
Velocity Reduction Method
This method sizes the duct by varying the velocity in the main and branch ducts. The various steps
involved are:
a. Select suitable velocities in the main and branch ducts (from recommended standards)
b. Find the diameters of the main and branch ducts from air flow rates and velocities. The
velocity in duct can be expressed as:
A=Q/v
Where,
✓ A = duct area (m2)

✓ Q = air flow rate (m3/s)
✓ v = air speed (m/s)
PART TWO 62
c. From the velocities and duct dimensions obtained in the previous step, find the frictional
pressure drop for the main and branch ducts using the friction chart.
Static Regain Method
Static regain is the process of converting velocity pressure (VP) to static pressure (SP).
TP = SP + VP
Therefore, for a given TP, if the VP is high (usually because the duct area is small), then the static
pressure (SP) must be low.
✓ SP is the pressure that causes the air in the duct to flow, and
✓ VP is the pressure that results from the air movement.
This means that it is desirable to have a high value of static pressure (SP) compared to the total
pressure (TP) developed by the fan.
PRESSURE LOSSES IN AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
The system resistance in ductwork has three components:
1. Friction loss
✓ resistance to air flow caused by duct size, roughness of duct walls, and air velocity).
2. Dynamic loss
✓ resistance to air flow caused by changes in air velocity and direction).
3. Equipment pressure loss
✓ resistance to air flow caused by components such as diffusers, coils, and filters).
Duct Friction Losses
Any type of duct system offers frictional resistance to the movement of air. Resistance to air flow
produces certain friction losses that vary with:
✓ Velocity of air
✓ Size of duct (smaller diameter duct has more friction)
✓ Roughness of the material
✓ Length of the duct
PART TWO 63
Pressure Loss in Fitting
 Zeta (z) factors are to be used with the Velocity Pressure to find fittings resistances.
 Zeta (z) factors are pressure loss factors.
 These allow for the resistance of fittings in ductwork systems which can be quite significant
compared to straight runs of duct.
Pressure Loss (or resistance) (Pa) = zeta factor x Velocity Pressure (Pa)
ρ v2
Δp = ζ
2
• Bend – mitred and radiused on both inside and outside.
• Rectangular Duct Branch
Zeta factor = 0.67
PART TWO 64
• Tapered Reduction
Air flow in duct
Types of Pressure losses due to change in area through duct system is depicted on the below
diagram as follows
Effects of sharp corners on the duct and flow of the conditioned air
PART TWO 65
Mathematical Equation for Duct Pressure Loss
Mathematically, the Darcy Weisbach equation may be used to determine the pressure drop in
ducts.
where,
✓ P = Pressure drop, mm of water

✓ f = Friction factor, dimensionless
✓ L = Duct length, in m
✓ D = Internal diameter of duct in ‘m’ (covert to equivalent diameter for noncircular duct)
✓ V = Velocity, m/s
✓ Density, kg/m3
Duct Fitting Dynamic Losses
Dynamic losses in duct systems are pressure losses caused by:
✓ The change in air direction from elbows, offsets, and take-offs.

✓ Restrictions or obstructions in the air stream such as dampers, filters, and coils.
PART TWO 66
✓ Changes in air velocity because of changes in duct size.
Methods of computing the energy losses from the various fitting types are based on information
found in ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals or can be calculated from loss-coefficient charts
FAN SIZING
Air passing through a closed duct will lose pressure due to friction and turbulence in the duct. An
air-moving device such as a fan will be required to increase the static pressure in order to overcome
this resistance loss
In a duct system, a fan is used to supply the necessary forces to bring the fluid from rest to the
system velocity and overcome friction forces. The force exerted by the fan is the fan total pressure.
Diffusers, Grilles & Registers
Diffusers
✓ are the terminal devices that supply air in various directions through the use of their
deflecting vanes. These are designed to promote the mixing of conditioned air with the air
already in the space.
Grilles
✓ are defined as air devices that are typically used to return air back to the fan or to exhaust
air from a space. Grilles are generally not used in supply distribution due to their inability
to control the air.
Registers
✓ It look like grilles but are comprised of one-way or two-way adjustable air stream
deflectors and dampers to restrict the amount of air flow required to be returned, supplied
or exhausted.
PART TWO 67
Diffuser Grill Register
Different Types of grill and supply outlets
PART TWO 68
Sample dampers
PART TWO 69

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LECTURE NOTE ON REFRIGERATION AND AIRCONDITIONING

PART TWO To lose patience is to lose the battle-

1. FUNDAMENTALS OF AIR CONDITIONING

 Factors Affecting Comport Air Conditioning

✓ stands for heating, ventilating, air-conditioning, and refrigerating

Most air conditioning systems perform the following functions

1. Provide the cooling and heating energy required

WKU 2020/21, WOLKITE, ETHIOPIA PREPARED BY: KASAHUN D.

Equipment's used in an AC system

❖ Air Conditioning unit:

WKU 2020/21, WOLKITE, ETHIOPIA PREPARED BY: KASAHUN D.

Fig: Components of AC system

Is there any Difference between AC and Ventilation?

WKU 2020/21, WOLKITE, ETHIOPIA PREPARED BY: KASAHUN D.

Types of Air-Conditioning Systems

1. Comfort air conditioning

✓ Commercial - office buildings, stores, shopping centers, restaurants, and others.

WKU 2020/21, WOLKITE, ETHIOPIA PREPARED BY: KASAHUN D.

❖ Based on the season of the year

• Summer Air Conditioning System

• All year-round Air-Conditioning System

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❖ Based on capacity and the arrangement of the system

1. Window Air Conditioning

✓ how large the area is to be cooled,

✓ the total heat generated inside the enclosed area, etc.

1. Window Air Conditioning

✓ It is the most commonly used air conditioner for single rooms.

WKU 2020/21, WOLKITE, ETHIOPIA PREPARED BY: KASAHUN D.

Fig: Window air conditioner

2. Split Air Conditioning system

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Fig: Split air conditioner

3. Packaged Air Conditioning system

 The compressor and condenser are housed in one casing.

Fig: Packaged Air Conditioner

WKU 2020/21, WOLKITE, ETHIOPIA PREPARED BY: KASAHUN D.

4. Central Air Conditioning System

Fig: Central Air Conditioning System

WKU 2020/21, WOLKITE, ETHIOPIA PREPARED BY: KASAHUN D.

Fig: Atmospheric air components

✓ air that contains no water vapor.

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Specific and relative humidity of air

❖ Specific humidity (humidity ratio)

✓ It refers to the weight of water vapour present in unit volume of air.

Fig: Wet bulb and Dry bulb temperature measurement psychrometer

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❖ Dew point temperature(DPT):

✓ formation of dew on grass,

✓ serves as a valuable aid in visualizing the air-conditioning processes

The basic features of the psychrometric chart

✓ Dry bulb temperature

Examining the Psychrometric Chart

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✓ dew point temperature

Processes commonly encountered in air conditioning are

1. Sensible heating or sensible cooling:

2. Cooling with dehumidification:

✓ Removal of moisture content can be done

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o by reducing the temperature of air below dew point temperature

✓ so as to allow condensation of water vapour.