Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Desalination Plant
Desalination Plant
A project submitted to
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
(November-December 2013)
Rahul Yadav
Ravindra Kumar
DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE
I the undersigned solemnly declare that the report the project work entitled “Study Of
Helical Coil Heat Exchanger and compare it with Straight Tube Heat
Exchanger” is based on our work carried out during the course of our study under the
supervision of Mr. Yogesh Kumar.(Assistant professor)
I assert that the statements made and conclusions drawn are an outcome of our
research work. We further declare that to the best of our knowledge and belief the
report does not contain any part of work which has been submitted for the award of
B.E. degree in C.S.V.T. U.
_____________________
CERTFICATE OF THE SUPERVISOR
This is to certify that the work incorporated in the project“Study Of Helical Coil
Heat Exchanger and Compare it with Straight Tube Heat Exchanger”is a record
of research work carried out by_________________of mechanical branch under my
guidance and supervision for the award of Degree of Bachelor of Engineering in the
faculty of Mr.Yogesh Kumar of Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical
University, Bhilai (C.G.), India.
____________________ ______________________
Signature Signature
This is to certify that the project work entitled“Study of Helical Coil Heat
Exchanger and Compare it with Straight Tube Heat exchanger”Submitted by
________________________ has been examined by the undersigned as a part of the
examination for the award of Bachelor of Engineering degree in Mechanical
Engineering in the Bhilai Institute of Technology,Durg.
__________________________ ________________________
Signature Signature
Date: Date:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Working on this project has been a great learning experience for us. There were
moments of anxiety, when we could not solve for several days and there were
moments when we could solve a problem after struggling for several days. But we
have enjoyed every bit of process and are thankful to all people associated with us
during this period.We also owe our gratitude to respected principal Dr. Arun Arora
who blessed us with this extra ordinary knowledge and experience regarding our
project. He also provided us all the necessary facilities to complete our project.
At last we would like to progress our sincere thanks to all authors for joining insight
into the working of complete description of the project. We would like to also thank
all those persons who directly or indirectly helped us by sharing their knowledge and
experience as it might become an impossible task to complete our project without
their help and guidance.
TABLE OF CONTENT
i) ABSTRACT…………………………………………(i)
ii) LIST OF FIGURE…………………………………...(ii)
iii) LIST OF ABBREVATION AND SYMBOL……….(iii)
iv) CHAPTER
1) INTRODUCTION…………………………………1-13
2) LITERETURE REVIEW…………………………14-18
3) PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION………………….19-20
4) METHODOLOGY………………………………..21-27
5) EXPECTED RESULTS & DISCUSSION………..28-29
6) CONCLUSION & SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK...30-31
v) BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………
ABSTRACT
Heat exchange is an important unit operation that contributes to efficiency and safety
of many processes. All the heat exchangers can be operated in both parallel- and
counter-flow configurations. The heat exchange is performed between hot and cold
water. Heat exchanger is important appliance in field of thermal ,heat mass ,fluid
flow, as in nuclear reactor ,steam power plant (in super heater),fertilizers factory,etc.
In this project basic heat exchangers types have been studied and basic operations and
phenomena it works upon, Special emphasis has been laid upon study of helical coil
heat exchanger ,designing the assembly of helical coil heat exchanger . Comparing it
straight tube heat exchanger numerically and theoretically with its advantage over
straight tube heat exchanger, its advantage is proved by secondary flow phenomena,
LMTD( logarithmic mean temperature difference) using nusselt and prandtl number,
considering fouling and other parameters.
(i)
LIST OF FIGURE
(ii)
LIST OF ABBREVIATION AND SYMBOL
3
ρ fluid density , kg/m
3
Vf volume available for flow in annulus area, m
3
Vc volume occupied by N turns of coil, m
3
Va volume occupied by annulus , m
r Average radius of helical coil ,taken from the centre line to the centre line coil,m
n Actual number ot turns of coil needed for a given process heat duty(N rounded
hio Heat transfer coefficient inside coiled tube based on outside diameter of coil kcal/hm2
hic Heat transfer coefficient inside coiled tube (hi corrected for coil) based on inside
diameter of coil kcal/hm2°C
hi Heat transfer coefficient inside straight tube tube based on inside diameter
2
kcal/hm °C
H Height of cylinder, m
Heat exchanger s are one of the most important process equipment’s that are used in
all industries such as petroleum, gas, petrochemical, power plants, food and etc. The
aim of using heat exchangers in processes is to reduce energy consumption. Shell
and tube hea t exchangers are the commonest and most used ones. Although shell and
tube heat exchanger have lower thermal efficiency than compact exchangers
With the increase in cost of harnessing energy and limited sources of energy there is
need for efficient utilization of waste energy so there is need for more efficient heat
exchanger Helical heat exchanger are considered as modern technology which are
designed and used to fulfil the shortcoming of common heat exchanger
A helical heat exchanger consist of helical coil fabricated out of meatal pipe that is
fitted in the annular portion of two concentric cylinder.
When a fluid flows through a straight tube, the fluid velocity is maximum at the tube
center, zero at the tube wall & symmetrically distributed about the axis. However,
when the fluid flows through a curved tube, the primary velocity profile indicated
above is distorted by the addition of secondary flow pattern. The secondary flow is
generated by centrifugal action and acts in a plane perpendicular to the primary flow.
Since the velocity is maximum at the center, the fluid at the center is subjected to the
maximum centrifugal action, which pushes the fluid towards the outer wall. The fluid
at the outer wall moves in ward along the tube wall to replace the fluid ejected
outwards. This results in the formation of two vortices symmetrical about a horizontal
plane through the tube center.It has been found that the effect of coil curvature is to
suppress turbulent fluctuations arising in the flowing fluid and smoothing the
emergence of turbulence. Thus it increases the value of the Reynolds number required
to attain a fully turbulent flow, as compared to that of a straight pipe. The above effect
of turbulent fluctuations suppression enhances as the curvature ratio increases.
Another important phenomena observed in helical tubes is the relamianrization. The
fluid flow, which was originally turbulent, changes to laminar while flowing inside a
helical pipe.
FOULING
Loss of heat transfer and subsequent charge outlet temperature decrease is a result of
the low thermal conductivity of the fouling layer or layers which is generally lower
than the thermal conductivity of the fluids or conduction wall. As a result of this
lower thermal conductivity, the overall thermal resistance to heat transfer is increased
and the effectiveness and thermal efficiency of heat exchangers are reduced. A simple
way to monitor a heat transfer system is to plot the outlet temperature versus time. In
one unit at an oil refinery, fouling led to a feed temperature decrease from 210°C to
170°C. In order to bring the feed to the required temperature, the heat duty of the
furnace may have to be increased with additional fuel required and resulting increased
fuel cost. Alternatively, the heat exchanger surface area may have to be increased
with consequent additional installation and maintenance costs. The required excess
surface area may vary between 10-50%, with an average around 35%, and the
additional extra costs involved may add up to a staggering 2.5 to 3.0 times the initial
purchase price of the heat exchangers. With the onset of fouling and the consequent
build up of fouling layer or layers, the cross sectional area of tubes or flow channels is
reduced. In addition, increased surface roughness due to fouling will increase
frictional resistance to flow. Such effects inevitably lead to an increase in the pressure
drop across the heat exchanger, which is required to maintain the flow rate through
the exchanger, and may even lead to flow blocks. Fouling is responsible for the
emission of many millions of tonnes of carbon dioxide as well as the use and disposal
of hazardous cleaning chemicals. The factors that govern fouling in heat exchangers
are many and varied. Of such factors some may be related to the feed properties such
as its chemical nature, density, viscosity, diffusivity, pour and cloud points, interfacial
properties and colloidal stability factors.
__
Where, Uc and U are the overall heat transfer coefficients for clean and fouling
conditions respectively. These coefficients are calculated from the general heat
transfer equation ,
Where,
R*f is the asymptotic fouling resistance. (mC/kW)
tc is the time constant, hr
A heat exchanger is a straightforward device which is utilized to move heat from one
place to another, using an evaporation-condensation cycle. Heat pipes are referred to
as the "superconductors" of heat due to their quick transfer capability with minimal
heat loss .The whole entire process only makes use of 3 major components which are
the container, the working fluid inside the pipe and the thermosyphon effect, also
called the capillary structure. But before studying the specific information of just how
the heat pipe works, it is best to know the history of heat pipe technology to get a
solid "feel" of its mechanism and how it differs from other comparable devices.
Principal differences between heat transfer in laminar flow and that in turbulent
flow:
The principal difference between laminar and turbulent flow, as far as heat transfer is
concerned, is that an additional mechanism of heat transfer in the radial and azimuthal
directions becomes available in turbulent flow. This is commonly termed “eddy
transport” and is intense, providing much better transfer of energy across the flow at a
given axial position than in laminar flow, wherein conduction is typically the only
mechanism that operates in the transverse directions (an exception occurs when there
are secondary flows in the transverse direction, such as in coiled tubes). Another
difference worthwhile noting is the extent of the “thermal entrance region” in which
the transverse temperature distribution becomes “fully developed.” This region is
relatively short in turbulent flow (precisely because of the intense turbulent transverse
transport of energy), whereas it tends to be long in laminar flow. Heat transfer
correlations, based on experimental results, are typically divided into those applicable
in the thermal entrance region, and those that apply in the “fully developed” region.
In the case of laminar flow, it is important to be aware of this distinction, and
normally a laminar flow heat exchanger is designed to be short, to take advantage of
relatively high heat transfer rates that are achievable in the thermal entrance region.
In the case of turbulent flow, the thermal entrance region is short, as noted earlier, and
typically heat transfer occurs mostly in the “fully developed” region. Therefore,
turbulent heat transfer correlations are commonly provided for the latter region
The following research work has been done -
Timothy J. Rennie, Vijaya G.S. Raghavan [1] Have done An experimental study
of a double-pipe helical heat exchanger. Two heat exchanger sizes and both parallel
flow and counter flow configurations were tested. Flow rates in the inner tube and in
the annulus were varied and temperature data recorded. Overall heat transfer
coefficients were calculated and heat transfer coefficients in the inner tube and the
annulus were determined using Wilson plots. Nusselt numbers were calculated for the
inner tube and the annulus. The inner Nusselt number was compared to the literature
values. Though the boundary conditions were different, a reasonable comparison was
found. The Nusselt number in the annulus was compared to the numerical data. D. G.
Prabhanjan, G. S. V. Ragbavan and T. J. Kennic [2] Have done experimental
study to determine the relative advantage of using a helically coiled heat exchanger
versus a straight tube heat exchanger for heating liquids. The particular difference in
this study compared to other similar studies was the boundary conditions for the
helical coil. Most studies focus on constant wall temperature or constant heat flux,
whereas in this study it was a fluid-to-fluid heat exchanger. All tests were performed
in the transitional and turbulent regimes. H. Shokouhmand, M.R. Salimpour, M.A.
Akhavan-Behabadi [3] Have done an experimental investigation of the shell and
helically coiled tube heat exchangers. Three heat exchangers with different coil
pitches and curvature ratios were tested for both parallel-flow and counter-flow
configurations. All the required parameters like inlet and outlet temperatures of tube-
side and shell-side fluids, flow rate of fluids, etc. were measured using appropriate
instruments. Overall heat transfer coefficients of the heat exchangers were calculated
using Wilson plots. The inner Nusselt numbers were compared to the values existed in
open literature. Nasser Ghorbani, Hessam Taherian, Mofid Gorji, Hessam
Mirgolbabaei [4], Have done an experimental investigation of the mixed convection
heat transfer in a coil-in-shell heat exchanger is reported for various Reynolds and
Rayleigh numbers, various tube-to-coil diameter ratios and dimensionless coil pitch.
The purpose of this article is to check the influence of the tube diameter, coil pitch,
shell-side and tube-side mass flow rate over the performance coefficient and modified
effectiveness of vertical helical coiled tube heat exchangers. The calculations have
been performed for the steady-state and the experiments were conducted for both
laminar and turbulent flow inside coil. It was found that the mass flow rate of tube-
side to shell-side ratio was effective on the axial temperature profiles of heat
exchanger -Nian Chen, Ji-Tian Han, Tien-Chien Jen, Li Shao , Wen-wen Chen
[5] Have done an experimental investigation on condensation heat transfer of R-134a
in horizontal straight and helically coiled tube-in-tube heat exchangers. The
experiments were carried out at three saturation temperatures(350 , 400 and 450 ) with
the refrigerant mass flux varying from 100 kg/m2 s to 400 kg/m2 s and the vapor
quality ranging from 0.1 to 0.8. The effects of vapor quality and mass flux of R-134a
on the condensation heat transfer coefficient were investigated. The results indicate
that the condensation heat transfer coefficients of the helical section are 4%-13.8%
higher than that of the straight section. J.S. Jayakumar, S.M. Mahajani, J.C.
Mandal, P.K. Vijayan, Rohidas Bhoi [6], An analysed heat exchanger considering
conjugate heat transfer and temperature dependent properties of heat transport media.
because constant temperature or constant heat flux boundary condition for an actual
heat exchanger does not yield practical condition for heat exchangers. An
experimental setup is fabricated for the estimation of the heat transfer characteristics.
The experimental results compared with the CFD calculated results using the CFD
package FLUENT 6.2. Based on the experimental results a correlation is developed to
calculate the inner heat transfer coefficient of the helical coil. Nasser Ghorbani,
Hessam Taherian, Mofid Gorji, Hessam Mirgolbabaei [7], The mixed convection
heat transfer is reported for various Reynolds and Raylighs numbers, various tube-to-
coil diameter ratios And dimensionless coil pitch. Shell-side and mass flow rate over
the performance coefficient and modified effectiveness of vertical coiled tube heat
exchangers. The calculations have been performed for the steady state and the
experiments were conducted for both Laminar and turbulent flow inside coil. The
results also indicate the –NTU relation of the mixed convection heat exchangers was
the same as that of a pure counterflow flow heat exchanger. Paisarn Naphon,
Somchai Wongwises[8], The performance of a spiral coil heat exchanger under
cooling and dehumidifying conditions are investigated. The heat exchanger consist of
a steel shell and A spirally coiled tube unit. The spiral coil-unit consist of six layers of
concentric spirally coiled tubes. Air and water are used as working fluids. The chilled
water entering the outermost turn flows along the spirally coiled tube, and flows out at
the innermost turn. The hot air enters the heat exchanger at the centre of shell and
flows radially across spiral tubes to the periphery. A mathematical model based on
mass and energy conservation is developed and solved by using the Newton-Raphson
iterative method to determine the heat transfer characteristics. M.R. Salimpour, [9],
The heat transfer coefficient of shell and helically coiled tube heat exchangers were
investigated experimentally. The heat exchangers with different coil pitches were
selected as test section for both parallel-flow and counter-flow configurations . All the
required parameters like inlet and outlet temperatures of tube-side and shell-side
fluids, flow rate of fluids,etc.were measured using appropriate instruments. Empirical
correlations were proposed for shell-side and tube –side. The calculated heat transfer
coefficients of tube side were also compared to the existing correlations for other
boundry conditions. M.R. Salimpour, [10], The heat characteristics of temperature-
dependent-property engine oil inside coil and tube heat exchangers. Three heat
exchangers with different coil pitches were selected as the test section for counter
flow configuration. Engine oil was circulated inside the inner coiled tube, while
coolant water flowed in the shell. All the required parameters like inlet and outlet
temperatures of tube side and shell side fluids, and flow rates of fluids, etc were
measured using appropriate instruments. Paisarn Naphon,[11], Numerical and
experimental results of the heat transfer and flow characteristics of the horizontal
spiral-coil tube are investigated. The spiral-coil tube is fabricated bybending a
8.00mm diameter straight copper-tube into a spiral-coil of five turns. The innermost
and outermost diameters of the spiral-coil are 270.00 and 406.00 mm, hot water and
cold water are used as a working fluid. Experiments are performed to obtain the heat
transfer and flow characteristics for verifying the numerical results. Paisarn Naphon,
Jamnean Suwgrai,[12], Effect of curvature ratios on the heat transfer and flow
developments in the horizontal spirally coiled tubes are investigated. The spiral-coil
tube is fabricated by bending a 8.00mm diameter straight copper-tube into a spiral-
coil of five turns. The spirally coiled tube with three different curvature ratios of 0.02,
0.04, 0.05 under constant wall temperature are tested. A finite volume method with an
unstructured nonuniform grid system is employed for solving the model. The
centrifugal force has asignificant effect on the enhancements of heat transfer and
pressure drop. Due to this force, the heat transfer and pressure drop obtained from the
spirally coiled tube are higher than those from the straight tube..Piroz Zamankhan,
[13], A 3D mathematical model has been developed to investigate the heat transfer
augmentation in a circular tube with a helical tabulator. Glycol water blends of
various concentrations were used in the inner tube, and pure water was used in the
outer tube. Changes in fluid physical properties with temperatures were taken into
account. And k-έ, k-ώ, and large eddy simulations were developed for turbulence
modeling. The simulation results showed a nonlinear variation in Reynolds and
prandtl numbers for a long model of heat exchanger even in the absence of a
turbulator, and was found to increase the heat transfer. Rahul Kharat, Nitin
Bhardwaj, R.S. Jha[14], Experimental data and CFD simulations using fluent 6.3.26
are used to developed improved heat transfer coefficient correlation for the flue gas
side of heat exchanger. Mathematical model is developed to analyze the data obtained
from CFD and experimental results to account for the effects of different functional
dependent variables, tube diameter and coil diameter which effect the heat transfer.
Optimization is done using numerical techniques. Paisarn Naphon [15], has studied
the thermal performance and pressure drop of the helical-coil heat exchanger with and
without helical crimped fins. The heat exchanger consists of a shell and helically
coiled tube unit with two different coil diameters. Each coil is fabricated by bending a
9.50 mm diameter straight copper tube into a helical-coil tube of thirteen turns. Cold
and hot water are used as working fluids in shell side and tube side, respectively. The
experiment done at the cold and hot water mass flow rates ranging between 0.10 and
0.22 kg/s, and between 0.02 and 0.12 kg/s, respectively. The inlet temperatures of
cold and hot water are between 15 and 25 °C, and between 35 and 45 °C, respectively.
The effects of the inlet conditions of both working fluids flowing through the test
section on theheat transfer characteristics discussed
3.PROBLEM
IDENTIFICATION
3.PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Heat exchanger is the process equipment designed for effective transfer of heat energy
between two fluids; a hot fluid and coolant .Heat exchangers serve a straightforward
purpose :controlling a system’s or substance’s temperature by adding or removing
thermal energy.
The main objective of this research is to determine the heat transfer characteristics of
a helical heat exchanger, both numerically and experimentally, and to determine the
effects of heat exchanger geometry and fluid properties on the heat transfer
characteristics. To accomplish this goal, the following problems were encountered:
1. Various parameters changing due to coil shape, temperature gradient and various
thermodynamic properties.
2. Problems in determining overall heat transfer coefficient due to fouling, and other
parameters.
3. Design and construction of a physical model of the heat exchanger.
4. Testing of the physical model under different flow rates and flow configurations
(parallel flow and counter flow).
5. Comparison of the results from both theoretical and experimental work.
4.METHODOLOGY
4.METHODOLOGY
Heat Exchanger is a very efficient device in which exchange of heat between two
fluids takes place one fluid is hot while another is cold. Heat exchangers are widely
used in various industries such as power plants ,automobiles ,cryogenic industries,
chemical reactors etc. Helical coil heat exchangers also got vary vast applications in
modern industries as compare to straight tube heat exchangers .Here we are going to
discuss about the heat transfer coefficient of Helical coil heat exchangers
Letting the cold and hot fluid flow through heat exchanger coil then by virtue of
temperature difference hot fluid will transfer heat to cold fluid, therefore this rate of
heat transfer can be calculated by below equation
Where,
The overall heat transfer coefficient represents the total resistance to heat transfer
from one fluid to another. The functional form of U or the product UA, may be
derived for any particular geometry by performing a standard conduction analysis on
the system of interest. To illustrate this, consider first a planar wall of thickness L,
subject to convection on both sides.
Fig.5.1 Overall Heat Resistance
If we assume parallel flow, the steady state heat transferred through a differential area
dA is
……………………(01)
Where the subscripts “h” and “c” denote the hot and cold fluids respectively. We
have already seen that we can write the heat transfer across this differential area in
terms of the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient as
…………………………(02)
From Equation 01,
such that
…..….…(03)
Assuming all terms on the right hand side of Equation 03 are constant, we can
integrate from point (1) to point (2) along the length of the heat exchanger
……………….……….…(04)
We further take advantage of the fact
such that,
where
To calculate heat transfer coefficient in the coil and the annulus following
parameter must be known
Vc =(∏/4)Do2 L (2)
Va =(∏/4)(C2-B2)pN (3)
Vf = Va -Vf (4)
6.The heat transfer coefficient in the annulus, h, can be calculated using one of the
following two equations for Reynolds numbers, Re, in the range of 50-10000 Eq (6)
[3] is recommended
hoDe/k=0.6Re0.5Pr0.31 (6)
The heat transfer coefficient of fluid flowing inside the coil, h io ,can be determined
using conventional methods such as described in Ref [4],The heat transfer coefficient
based on inside coil diameter ,hi, is obtained using a method for a straight tube –either
one of the Sieder-Tata relationships or a plot of Colburn factor, That must be then
corrected for a coiled tube multiplying hi by [1+3.5(D/DH)] to get hic.the coefficient
based on outside diameter of the coil, hio , is then obtained by
x=((Do- Di)/2)
A=Q/∆tc (10)
Determine the number of turns of coil .Since A=∏ D oL,and L is expressed in terms of
N,the number of turns of coil needed can be calculated by-N=A/(∏ Do(L/N)) (11)
5.EXPECTED RESULT &
DISCUSSION
5.EXPECTED RESULTS & DISCUSSION
From the experiment we can determine that the Helical; coil heat exchanger is found
to be more effective as compare to straight tube heat exchanger. heat transfer coefficient
of Helical Coil Heat Exchanger is comparatively greater than straight tube heat
exchanger. There is effect of curvature on the flow of fluids which causes a secondry
flow due to centrifugal force so the heat transfer between two fluids takes place in the
efficient manner that’s why Helical coil heat exchanger has high effectiveness compare
to straight tube heat exchanger
6.CONCLUSION &
SCOPE OF FUTURE
WORK
6.CONCLUSION & SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK
Various research work has been carried out in the past regarding to effectiveness of
helical coiled heat exchanger and also form this experiment it is found that the helical
coil heat exchanger may be a great option for effective heat transfer between two fluids
in the modern industries where it may incorporated in the place of straight tube heat
exchanger.
In present Scenario there is need for more efficient and compact heat exchanger
.helical coil heat exchanger may be a suitable solution for more efficient heat
transfer .helical coil heat exchanger may also be incorporated with the fins which
increases the heat transfer rate and also can improve the effectiveness of helical coiled
heat exchanger
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. D.S.Kumar Heat and Mass Transfer 7th revised edition pg-682-684 S.K. Kataria
& Sons
2. R.K. Rajput Thermal Engineering 4th edition, S.Chand publication
3. NAG ,P.K , Heat and Mass Transfer, 3rd edition ,Tata Mcgraw-Hill publication
4 D.S. Kumar, Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power Engineering, S.K. Kataria & Sons
5 S.P. Sukhatme Heat and Mass Transfer
6. J.P.Holman, Heat transfer, McGraw Hill Book Company
7 Acharya, N., Sen, M., and H. C. Chang. 2001. Analysis of heat transfe
enhancement in coiled-tube heat exchangers. International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, Vol.
44: 3189-3199
8. Akiyama, M. and K. C. Cheng. 1972. Laminar forced convection heat transfer in
curved pipes with uniform wall temperature. International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, Vol. 15:1426-1431..
9. Berger, S. A., Talbot, L., and L. S. Yao. 1983. Flow in curved pipes. Ann.
Rev.FluidMech., Vol. 15:461-512.
10. Minton P.E., Designing Spiral Tube Heat Exchangers, Chemical Engineering,
May 1970, p. 145.
11. Noble, M.A., Kamlani, J.S., and McKetta, J.J., Heat Transfer in Spiral Coils,
Petroleum Engineer, April
1952, p. 723.
14. “Heliflow Coolers and Heaters,” Bulletin H-84-3, Graham Manufacturing Co. Inc.
15. “Heliflow Heat Exchangers,” Bulletin HHE-30, Graham Manufacturing