Cagayan Valley Road, Barangay Makapilapil, San Ildefonso, Bulacan.

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Topic: ORGAN SYSTEM
Week
Teacher: AMAYA S. TOBIAS, LPT
9-12
Date: JA

Student Name: ____________________________ Grade: _____ Section: __________

TARGET GUIDE

1. Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and animals: reproduction,
development, nutrition, gas exchange, transport/circulation, regulation of body fluids, chemical
and nervous control, immune systems, and sensory and motor mechanisms. STEM_BIO11/12
-IVa-h-1
2. explain how some organisms maintain steady internal conditions that possess various structures
and processes STEM_BIO11/12 -IVi-j-2
3. describe examples of homeostasis (e.g., temperature regulation, osmotic balance and glucose
levels) and the major features of feedback loops that produce such homeostasis
STEM_BIO11/12 -IVi-j-3
THINGS TO LEARN

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. Identify and describe the anatomy and physiology of human skin.
2. Understand how human skin maintain its homeostasis.
3. Distinguish different accessory organs of human integumentary system.
4. Explicit proper ways on taking care of skin, and prevent unnecessary related skin problems.
5. Be aware of major pathological conditions related to integumentary system
6. Understand the anatomy and physiology of human muscular system.
7. Develop exercise/fitness routine on muscle development.
8. Familiarize the types of major muscles in the body.
THINK ABOUT IT

Why do humans and other

animals get “goose bumps” when Why do muscles hurt for days
they are cold or under other after intense training sessions?
circumstances?

TEACHING POINTS
Our body is made up of cells. Each of which is
about five thousandth of a millimeter. It is too
small to be seen by the naked eye yet it
contains practically all the information about
you: your eye color, blood type, sex, etc.
The invention of the microscope made
possible the discovery of cells. The first lenses
were used in Europe in the late 1500s by
merchants who needed to determine the
quality ofORGAN
cloth through the quality of thread
SYSTEMS
and the precision of the weave. From these
simple lenses, combination of lenses was put
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
together.

Organs of the integumentary system include the skin, hair, and nails. The skin is the largest organ in the
body. It encloses and protects the body and is the site of many sensory receptors. The skin is the body’s
first defense against pathogens, and it also helps regulate body temperature and eliminate wastes in
sweat.

SKELETAL SYSTEM

The skeletal system consists of bones, joints, teeth. The bones of the skeletal system are connected by
tendons, ligaments, and cartilage. Functions of the skeletal system include supporting the body and
giving it shape. Along with the muscular system, the skeletal system enables the body to move. The
bones of the skeletal system also protect internal organs, store calcium, and produce red and white
blood cells.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The muscular system consists of three different types of muscles, including skeletal muscles, which are
attached to bones by tendons and allow for voluntary movements of the body. Smooth muscle tissues
control the involuntary movements of internal organs, such as the organs of the digestive system,
allowing food to move through the system. Smooth muscles in blood vessels allow vasoconstriction and
vasodilation, thereby helping to regulate body temperature. Cardiac muscle tissues control the
involuntary beating of the heart, allowing it to pump blood through the blood vessels of
the cardiovascular system.

URINARY SYSTEM

The urinary system is part of the excretory system, which removes wastes from the body. The urinary

system includes the pair of kidneys, which filter excess water and a waste product (called urea) from the
blood and form urine. Two tubes called ureters carry the urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder,
which stores the urine until it is excreted from the body through another tube called the urethra. The
kidneys also produce an enzyme called renin and a variety of hormones. These substances help
regulate blood pressure, the production of red blood cells, and the balance of calcium and phosphorus
in the body.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
The integumentary system is an organ system consisting of the skin, hair, nails, and exocrine glands.
The skin is only a few millimeters thick yet is by far the largest organ in the body. The average person’s
skin weighs 10 pounds and has a surface area of almost 20 square feet. Skin forms the body’s outer
covering and forms a barrier to protect the body from chemicals, disease, UV light, and physical damage.
Hair and nails extend from the skin to reinforce the skin and protect it from environmental

Cutaneous Membrane or Skin

Skin is the largest organ of the body. It accounts 16% of a human’s body weight. It has a surface area of
around 1.5 - 2 square meters. Weighing 8 pounds or 3.6 kilograms. Its thickness is about 2 mm. The skin
protects us from microbes and the elements, helps regulate body temperature, and permits the
sensations of touch, heat, and cold.

LAYERS OF SKIN
Epidermis

The epidermis is the thin, outer and superficial

layer of the skin that is visible to the naked eye
and works to provide protection to the body. An
avascular region of the body, meaning it does not
contain any blood vessels and is, therefore,
dependent on the dermis, the layer of the skin
underneath it, to provide access to nutrients and
dispose of waste.

LAYERS OF EPIDERMIS
1. Stratum Basale

The innermost layer of the epidermis. Also known as the

“stratum germinativum” due to the fact that it is constantly
germinating (producing) new cells. It contains small round
cells called basal cells. The basal cells continually divide, and
new cells constantly push older ones up toward the surface
of the skin, where they are eventually shed.

2. Stratum Spinosum

3. Stratum
The thickest layer Granulosum
of the epidermis. (8–10 layers of
keratinocytes). It is also known as the “stratum spinosum” or
The stratum granulosum (or granular layer) is a thin layer of
"spiny layer" due to the fact that the cells are held together
cells in the epidermis. Stops dividing, starts producing:
with spiny projections. Within this layer are the basal cells
keratin and keratohyalin.
that have been pushed upward, however these maturing
cells
Cells arestart
here nowtocalled squamous
produce proteincells, or dehydrate
fibers, keratinocytes.
and die
and create tightly interlocked layer of keratin surrounded by
keratohyalin.
 4. Stratum Lucidum

The “clear layer”. Found only in thick skin. It covers stratum

granulosum. Cells here are flat, dense and filled with keratin.

5. Stratum Corneum

The outermost layer of the epidermis.

It’s also known as the "horny layer," because its cells are
toughened like an animal's horn. It is made up of 10 to 30 thin
layers of continually shedding, dead keratinocytes. As the
outermost cells age and wear down, they are replaced by new
layers of strong, long-wearing cells.

Cells of the Epidermis

 Keratinocytes
 Melanocytes
 Langerhans’ cells
 Merkel’s cell
Keratinocytes
Keratinocytes are the predominant cell type of
epidermis and originate in the basal layer,
produce keratin, and are responsible for the
formation of the epidermal water barrier by
making and secreting lipids. Keratinocytes
also regulate calcium absorption by the activation
of cholesterol precursors by UVB light to form vitamin D.
Melanocytes
Melanocytes are derived from neural crest cells and
primarily produce melanin, which is responsible for
the pigment of the skin. They are found between
cells of stratum basale and produce melanin. UVB
light stimulates melanin secretion which is
protective against UV radiation, acting as a built-in
sunscreen. Melanin is produced during the
conversion of tyrosine to DOPA by the enzyme
tyrosinase. Melanin then travels from cell to cell by
a process that relies on the long processes extending
from the melanocytes to the neighboring epidermal
cells. Melanin granules from melanocytes are
transferred via the long processes to the cytoplasm
of basal keratinocyte. Melanin transferred to
neighboring keratinocytes by “pigment donation”; involves phagocytosis of tips of melanocyte
processes by keratinocytes.

Langerhans’ Cells
Langerhans cells, dendritic cells, are the skins first line
defenders and play a significant role in antigen
presentation. These cells need special stains to visualize,
primarily found in the stratum spinosum. These cells are
the mesenchymal origin, derived from CD34 positive
stem cells of bone marrow and are part of the
mononuclear phagocytic system. They contain Birbeck
granules, tennis racket shaped cytoplasmic organelles.
These cells express both MHC I and MHC II molecules,
uptake antigens in skin and transport to the lymph node.

Merkel Cells
Merkel cells are oval-shaped modified epidermal cells
found in stratum basale, directly above the basement
membrane. These cells serve a sensory function as
mechanoreceptors for light touch, and are most
populous in fingertips, though also found in the palms,
soles, oral, and genital mucosa. They are bound to
adjoining keratinocytes by desmosomes and contain
intermediate keratin filaments and their membranes
interact with free nerve endings in the skin.
Dermis
The dermis is located beneath the epidermis and is the thickest of the three layers of the skin (1.5
to 4 mm thick), making up approximately 90 percent of the thickness of the skin. The main
functions of the dermis are to regulate temperature and to supply the epidermis with nutrient-
saturated blood. Much of the body's water supply is stored within the dermis.

The dermis has two parts: a thin, upper layer known as the papillary dermis, and a thick, lower
layer known as the reticular dermis. Its thickness varies depending on the location of the skin.
For example, the dermis on the eyelids is 0.6 millimeters thick; on the back, the palms of hands
and the soles of feet, it measures 3 millimeters thick.1

The dermis contains a lot of the body's water supply and it has important roles in both regulating
temperature and providing blood to the epidermis.

Structures found in the dermis include:

 Connective tissues, specifically collagen and elastin

 Blood capillaries (the smallest of blood vessels) and other small vessels
 Lymph vessels
 Sweat glands
 Sebaceous glands (oil glands)—best known for its tendency of becoming clogged and
causing the dreaded white heads of acne, it actually plays an important role in protecting
the body
 Nerve endings
 Hair follicles—the body contains close to 2 million hair follicles

IMPORTANT ROLE IT PLAYS

Producing sweat and regulating the body's temperature: Within the dermis are sweat
glands that produce sweat that comes out of the pores. The body sweats as a way to cool
itself off, regulate temperature and flush out toxins. There are more than 2.5 million
sweat glands in the body, and there are two different types: apocrine and eccrine.

Apocrine sweat glands are found in the more odorous parts of the body, including the
armpits, scalp, and genital region. The sweat glands, which become active during
puberty, secrete their substances into the hair follicles. The sweat that is secreted is
actually odorless at first. It only starts to smell when it comes in contact with skin
bacteria. Eccrine sweat glands are located throughout the rest of the body—on the
palms, the soles of feet, armpits, and the forehead. These glands emit their substances
directly to the surface of the skin.

Producing oil: The sebaceous glands produce sebum or oil. Sebum inhibits bacterial
growth on the skin and conditions the hair and skin. If the follicle in which sebaceous
glands are located becomes clogged with excess oil or dead skin cells, a pimple develops.
 Growing hair: Hair follicles are located in the dermis. Every follicle root is attached to
tiny muscles, known as arrector pili muscles, that contract when the body becomes cold
or scared, causing goose bumps.

Feeling: The dermis is full of nerve endings that send signals to the brain about how
things feel—whether something hurts, itches, or feels good.

Distributing blood: Blood vessels are located in the dermis, which feeds the skin,
removes toxins. And supply the epidermis with blood.

Protecting the rest of the body: The dermis contains phagocytes, which are cells that
consume potentially harmful toxins and impurities, including bacteria. The dermis
already protects the body, but the phagocytes provide an additional layer of protection
from anything harmful that has penetrated the epidermis.

Giving the skin structure so it holds its shape: The dermal layer is responsible for the
turgor of the skin, acting in a similar way as does the foundation of a building.

Hypodermis

The hypodermis contains the cells known as

fibroblasts, adipose tissue (fat cells), connective
tissue, larger nerves and blood vessels,
and macrophages, cells which are part of the
immune system and help keep your body free of
intruders.

The thickness of the hypodermis varies in

different regions of the body and can vary
considerably between different people. In fact, the
thickness of the hypodermis plays an important
role in distinguishing between males and females.
In men, the hypodermis is thickest in the abdomen
and shoulders, whereas in women it is thickest in the hips, thighs, and buttocks.

The hypodermis may at first be viewed as tissue which is used primarily for the storage of fat,
but it has other important functions as well. These functions include:

 Storing fat (energy storage)

 Protection (think buttocks and sitting on a hard chair)
 Attaching the upper skin layers (dermis and epidermis) to underlying tissues such as your
bones and cartilage, and supporting the structures within this layer such as nerves and
blood vessels
  Body temperature regulation: This layer functions as an insulator, offering protection
against the cold, and protects the body against heat as well through sweating.
 Hormone production: The hormone leptin is secreted by fat cells to tell the body it is time
to stop eating.

ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF SKIN

Hair

The hair is a keratin structure growing out of the epidermis. It is found on all areas of the body
except the palms of the hands, soles of the feet and the lips, and has several functions:

 Protection – hair on the head protects the skull from the sun, while that in the nose and
ears and around the eyes (eyelashes) traps and excludes dust particles, which may contain
allergens and microbes. Eyebrows prevent sweat and other particles from dripping into
the eyes;
 Sensory reception – the hair is far more sensitive than the skin surface to air movement or
other disturbances in the environment, for example, head-lice infestation;
 Thermoregulation;
 Distribution of sweat-gland products;
 Psychosocial – hair plays an important role in determining self-image and social
perceptions (Kolarsick et al, 2011; Graham-Brown and Bourke, 2006).

The hair mainly comprises dead keratinized

cells. Strands of hair originate from the hair
follicle, which is an epidermal penetration of
the dermis. Hair follicles are set at an angle
into the dermis, with the bulb (germinal
matrix) sitting deep down, just above or in
the hypodermis (Graham-Brown and
Bourke, 2006). The structure of the dermal
papilla (bulb), germinal matrix and root.

The visible hair shaft is the only part that is

not anchored to the hair follicle and the
shape plays a role in determining hair
texture. The rest of the hair (hair root) is
anchored in the follicle and lies below the
surface of the skin (Fig 1). The hair root
 ends deep in the dermis at the hair bulb, and includes a layer of mitotically active basal
cells called the hair matrix.

Cells of the hair matrix divide and differentiate to form the three layers of the hair:

 Medulla – the central core of the hair;

 Cortex – this surrounds the medulla;
 Cuticle – an outer layer of very hard, keratinized cells.
Hair texture is determined by the shape and structure of the cortex and by the shape of the hair
follicle:

 Round hair follicle – hair will be straight and coarse;

 Oval hair follicle – hair will be wavy;
 Flat hair follicle – hair will be curly.
The hair bulb surrounds the hair papilla, which is made of connective tissue and contains blood
capillaries and nerve endings from the dermis. Also attached to each follicle is a small bundle of
smooth muscle, the arrector pili, which contracts with cold, fear and emotion to erect the hairs
and produce goosebumps (Gawkrodger and Ardern-Jones, 2016).

Nails
Nails consist of hardened and densely packed keratin, and protect the extremities of our fingers
and toes from mechanical damage. Offering protection for the fingertips, they facilitate grasping
and tactile sensitivity in the finger. The fingertip has many nerve endings and receives
information about objects we touch; the nail acts as a counterforce, providing even more sensory
input.

The components making up the structure of the nail are shown in Fig 3 and described below:

 Nail matrix – the growing part of the nail, still under the skin at the nail’s proximal end,
containing cells that divide, mature, keratinise and move forward to the nail plate;
 Nail plate – this hard and translucent portion is composed of keratin, and varies in
thickness from 0.3mm to 0.5mm ;
 Cuticle (eponychium) – the cuticle is the fold of skin at the proximal end of the nail;
 Paronychium – the lateral fold of skin on the sides of the nail;
  Nail bed – this is adherent connective tissue underlying the nail; it is rich in blood
vessels, making it appear pink, except at the base, where a thick layer of epithelium over
the nail matrix forms a crescent-shaped region called the lunula (“little moon”);
 Hyponychium – the area beneath the free edge of the nail, farthest from the cuticle; it
consists of a thickened layer of stratum corneum (Gawkrodger and Ardern-Jones, 2016).

SKIN PROBLEM, DISEASES AND DISORDER

A melanoma is a cancer characterized by the uncontrolled

growth of melanocytes, the pigment-producing cells in the
epidermis. Typically, a melanoma develops from a mole. It is the
most fatal of all skin cancers, as it is highly metastatic and can be
difficult to detect before it has spread to other organs.
Melanomas usually appear as asymmetrical brown and black
patches with uneven borders and a raised surface Treatment
typically involves surgical excision and immunotherapy.

Eczema is an allergic reaction that manifests as dry, itchy

patches of skin that resemble rashes. It may be accompanied by
swelling of the skin, flaking, and in severe cases, bleeding.
Symptoms are usually managed with moisturizers, corticosteroid
creams, and immunosuppressant.
Acne is a skin disturbance that typically occurs on areas of the skin that are rich in sebaceous
glands (face and back). It is most common along with the onset of puberty due to associated
hormonal changes, but can also occur in infants and continue into adulthood. Hormones, such as
androgens, stimulate the release of sebum. An overproduction and accumulation of sebum along
with keratin can block hair follicles. This plug is initially white. The sebum, when oxidized by
exposure to air, turns black. Acne results from infection by acne-causing bacteria
(Propionibacterium and Staphylococcus), which can lead to redness and potential scarring due to
the natural wound healing process.

Acne is a result of over-productive sebaceous glands, which leads to formation of blackheads

and inflammation of the skin.

Scars and keloid

Most cuts or wounds, with the exception of ones that only scratch the surface (the epidermis),
lead to scar formation. A scar is collagen-rich skin formed after the process of wound healing
that differs from normal skin. Scarring occurs in cases in which there is repair of skin damage,
but the skin fails to regenerate the original skin structure. Fibroblasts generate scar tissue in the
form of collagen, and the bulk of repair is due to the basket-weave pattern generated by collagen
fibers and does not result in regeneration of the typical cellular structure of skin. Instead, the
tissue is fibrous in nature and does not allow for the regeneration of accessory structures, such as
hair follicles, sweat glands, or sebaceous glands.

Sometimes, there is an overproduction of scar tissue, because the process of collagen formation
does not stop when the wound is healed; this results in the formation of a raised or hypertrophic
scar called a keloid. In contrast, scars that result from acne and chickenpox have a sunken
appearance and are called atrophic scars.

Calluses

When you wear shoes that do not fit well and are a constant source of abrasion on your toes, you
tend to form a callus at the point of contact. This occurs because the basal stem cells in the
stratum basale are triggered to divide more often to increase the thickness of the skin at the point
of abrasion to protect the rest of the body from further damage. This is an example of a minor or
local injury, and the skin manages to react and treat the problem independent of the rest of the
body. Calluses can also form on your fingers if they are subject to constant mechanical stress,
such as long periods of writing, playing string instruments, physical work, or video games.
A corn is a specialized form of callus. Corns form from abrasions on the skin that result from an
elliptical-type motion.

Skin and its underlying tissue can be affected by excessive pressure. One example of this is
called a bedsore. Bedsores, also called decubitus ulcers, are caused by constant, long-term,
unrelieved pressure on certain body parts that are bony, reducing blood flow to the area and
leading to necrosis (tissue death). Bedsores are most common in elderly patients who have
debilitating conditions that cause them to be immobile. Most hospitals and long-term care
facilities have the practice of turning the patients every few hours to prevent the incidence of
bedsores. If necrotized tissue is not removed bedsores can become infected and potentially fatal.

The skin can also be affected by pressure associated with rapid growth. A stretch mark results
when the dermis is stretched beyond its limits of elasticity, as the skin stretches to accommodate
the excess pressure. Stretch marks usually accompany rapid weight gain during puberty and
pregnancy. They initially have a reddish hue, but lighten over time. Other than for cosmetic
reasons, treatment of stretch marks is not required. They occur most commonly over the hips and

Burns
A burn results when the skin is damaged by intense heat, radiation, electricity, or chemicals. The
damage results in the death of skin cells, which can lead to a massive loss of fluid. Dehydration,
electrolyte imbalance, and renal and circulatory failure follow, which can be fatal. Burn patients
are treated with intravenous fluids to offset dehydration, as well as intravenous nutrients that
enable the body to repair tissues and replace lost proteins. Another serious threat to the lives of
burn patients is infection. Burned skin is extremely susceptible to bacteria and other pathogens,
due to the loss of protection by intact layers of skin.

Squamous cell carcinoma is a cancer that affects the keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum and
presents as lesions commonly found on the scalp, ears, and hands. It is the second most common
skin cancer. The American Cancer Society reports that two of 10 skin cancers are squamous cell
carcinomas, and it is more aggressive than basal cell carcinoma. If not removed, these
carcinomas can metastasize. Surgery and radiation are used to cure squamous cell carcinoma.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

The muscular system is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers. Their predominant

function is contractibility. Muscles, attached to bones or internal organs and blood vessels, are
responsible for movement. Nearly all movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction.
Exceptions to this are the action of cilia, the flagellum on sperm cells, and amoeboid movement
of some white blood cells.

The integrated action of joints, bones, and skeletal muscles produces obvious movements such as
walking and running. Skeletal muscles also produce more subtle movements that result in
various facial expressions, eye movements, and respiration.

In addition to movement, muscle contraction also fulfills some other important functions in the
body, such as posture, joint stability, and heat production. Posture, such as sitting and standing,
is maintained as a result of muscle contraction. The skeletal muscles are continually making fine
adjustments that hold the body in stationary positions. The tendons of many muscles extend over
joints and in this way contribute to joint stability. This is particularly evident in the knee and
shoulder joints, where muscle tendons are a major factor in stabilizing the joint. Heat production,
to maintain body temperature, is an important by-product of muscle metabolism. Nearly 85
percent of the heat produced in the body is the result of muscle contraction.

 Skeletal muscle: This type of muscle creates movement in the body. There are more than
600 skeletal muscles, and they makes up about 40 percent of a person’s body weight.
When the nervous system signals the muscle to contract, groups of muscles work together
to move the skeleton. These signals and movements are nearly involuntary, yet they do
require conscious effort. However, humans do not need to concentrate on individual
muscles when moving.

 Cardiac muscle: Cardiac muscle is involuntary muscle. This type makes up the walls of
the heart and creates the steady, rhythmic pulsing that pumps blood through the body
from signals from the brain. This muscle type also creates the electrical impulses that
produce the heart’s contractions, but hormones and stimuli from the nervous system can
also affect these impulses, such as when your heart rate increases when you’re scared.

 Smooth muscle: Smooth muscle makes up the walls of hollow organs, respiratory
passageways, and blood vessels. Its wavelike movements propel things through the
bodily system, such as food through your stomach or urine through your bladder. Like
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle is involuntary and also contracts in response to stimuli
and nerve impulses.
 Muscle movement happens when neurological signals produce electrical changes in muscle cells.
During this process, calcium is released into the cells and brings about a short muscle twitch.
Problems with the junction between the cells — called a synapse — can lead to neuromuscular
diseases.

Muscle pain is a common issue that can signal numerous problems, even if it’s something as
simple as overuse. Some muscular disorders and conditions that affect muscles include:

 Muscle pain

 Sprains and strains

 Bruising

 Cramping

 Myopathy

 Muscular dystrophy

 Parkinson’s disease

 Fibromyalgia

 Multiple sclerosis

Proper nutrition and exercise is important to keeping all muscles healthy, whether they are
cardiac, smooth, or skeletal.

 Smooth
 No striations
 Individual cells are spindle shaped with
centrally located nuclei
 Regulated by the autonomic nervous system
 Located in visceral structures
 Aggregates of myofilaments are composed of
actin and myosin

CardiacFilaments are not arranged in order
 Found only in the heart
 Regulated by the autonomic nervous system
 Shows striations characterized by alternating white
and dark bands
 Composed of elongated, branching cells with
irregular contours at junctions with other cells
 Boundary area where cells meet is called
intercalated disk
 This specialized structure facilitates transmission
 Skeletal
 Long bundles of cells – striated
 Multinucleated with nuclei at periphery of cells
 Innervated by spinal or cranial nerves
 Three types
• red or dark (highest myoglobin and
mitochondria content)
• white or pale (lowest myoglobin and
mitochondria content)
• intermediate (characteristics between white
and red fibers)
 Skeletal muscle comprises majority of body
muscle mass

 Skeletal muscle fiber can run the length of the

muscle with which it is a part

 Skeletal muscle fibers do not branch or

anastomose

 Skeletal
 Often described according to type of movement performed
• Flexors – if they are located on the side of the limb towards which the
joint decreases the joint angle
• Extensors – if they are located on the side of the limb towards which the
joint increases the joint angle
• Adductors – if they pull a limb toward the median plane
• Abductors – if they pull a limb away from the median plane
• Sphincters – are arranged circularly to constrict body openings

 Function of muscles is to contract or shorten and thereby move an object

 Primary consideration for accomplishing this goal is arrangement
 Examples include:
 Sheets
  Sheets rolled into tubes
 Bundles
 Rings
 Cones
 Discrete cells or clusters of cells
 The effects of skeletal muscles (apart from sphincters) are noted some distance from their
location
 This means the contraction must be transmitted
 One end must be anchored and the other attached directly to a tendon or moveable
part
 Accordingly, anatomic description of a skeletal muscle sometimes refers to its
origin and insertion

 Endomysium – around single muscle fiber

 Perimysium – around a fascicle (bundle) of fibers
 Epimysium – covers the entire skeletal muscle
 Fascia – on the outside of the epimysium
 MAJOR MUSCLES IN THE HUMAN BODY

The muscles in this area control movement of the face, head, and neck. Examples include:

 Zygomaticus: This muscle is involved in facial expression and lifts the corners of your
mouth, such as when you smile.

 Masseter: The masseter is found in the jaw and is used to close your mouth and to chew
food.

 Eye (extraocular) muscles: This is a group of muscles that controls the movements of

your eyes as well as the opening and closing of your eyelids.

 Muscles of the tongue: This group of muscles help to elevate and lower the tongue as

well as help it move in and out.

 Sternocleidomastoid: This is the major muscle that’s involved when you rotate or tilt

your head to the side. It’s also involved in tilting your head forward.
These muscles are located in the area of your torso and abdomen. Some examples are:

 Erector spinae: These muscles are involved in supporting your spine and enabling

movements such as bending, arching, and twisting of the spine.

 Oblique muscles: This group of muscles, which includes

the external and internal obliques, helps you to bend to the side or twist your body at the
waist.

 Intercostal muscles: The intercostal muscles are located around your ribs and help

facilitate inhaling and exhaling.

 Diaphragm: The diaphragm separates your torso from your abdomen. It’s also involved

in breathing, contracting when you inhale, and relaxing when you exhale.

 Levator ani: This muscle group supports the organs and tissues around your pelvis. It’s
also important for urination and bowel movements.

This includes the muscles that move your shoulders, arms, wrists, and hands. Examples of
important muscles in this area include:

 Trapezius: This muscle is used for several movements, including tilting your head back,
raising your shoulders, and moving your shoulder blades together.

 Pectoralis major: The pectoralis major is located in your upper chest and is utilized for
rotational, vertical, and lateral movements of your arm.

 Deltoid: The deltoid works to lift or rotate your arm at the shoulder.

 Biceps brachii: The biceps brachii flexes the forearm. When this happens, your elbow
bends.

 Triceps brachii: The triceps brachii extends the forearm, straightening the elbow.

This area involves the muscles that move your legs and feet. Some examples that you may be
familiar with are:

 Gluteus maximus: This muscle is used for movement of your hips and thighs. It’s
important for maintaining posture, standing up from a sitting position, or going up stairs.

 Quadriceps: This is actually a group of muscles that are located at the front of your thigh
and work together to straighten your leg at the knee.

 Hamstrings: Your hamstrings are located in the back part of your leg. This muscle group
helps to extend your thigh and to bend your leg at the knee.

 Tibialis anterior: You use this muscle when you raise the sole of your foot from the
ground

 Soleus: The soleus works to lower the sole of your foot to the ground. It’s important for
maintaining your posture while you’re walking.

The function of smooth muscle can vary depending on where it’s found in the body. Let’s look at
some functions of smooth muscle by system:

 Digestive system: The contractions of smooth muscle help to push food through your
digestive tract.

 Respiratory system: Smooth muscle tissue can cause your airways to widen or narrow.

 Cardiovascular system: Smooth muscle in the walls of your blood vessels aids in the flow

of blood and also helps to regulate your blood pressure.

 Renal system: Smooth muscle helps to regulate the flow of urine from your bladder.

 Reproductive system: In the female reproductive system, smooth muscle is involved

in contractions during pregnancy. In the male reproductive system, it helps to
propel sperm.

Smooth muscle is also involved in some sensory processes. For example, smooth muscle is what
causes your pupils to expand or contract.
 TASK TO DO

Identify the parts and describe each function of its part.

 THINGS TO PONDER

1. Why do teenagers often experience acne?

2. Why do scars look different from surrounding skin?

3. What happens to muscles as we get older?

4. Explain the role of sweat glands in maintaining body temperature homeostasis.

5. What are the daily common activities that helps your muscle to develop?
 TEST YOURSELF

Make a video presentation on exercise session that helps your specific type of muscles of the
body to develop. Make an individual video for each type of major muscles discussed above.

Here are the following criteria for grading:

Accuracy of the exercise – 30%

Knowledge on the matter -20%
Technique – 20%
Meets minimal requirements-20%
Overall performance- 10%

B. Define the following terms:

1. Sebum –
2. Albinism –
3. Melanin –
4. Blister –
5. Carcinogen –
6. Mole –
7. Wart –
8. Mitosis –
9. Acne –
10. Keratin –

Answer the following questions.

11. What are the 2 main layers of the skin and what type of tissue makes up each?
12. What are the 5 layers of the epidermis of thick skin and briefly describe each layer. List them
in order from the most superficial to the deepest.
13. Which of the above layers is not found in thin skin?
14. What specific layer gives rise to fingerprints and in which main layer of skin is it found?
15. What are the 5 main functions of the integumentary system?
16. What are the 2 appendages of the skin?
17. What are the types of glands found in and under the skin and what do they each secrete? In
which layer are the glands found? In what area(s) of the body are each found?
18. Why does skin wrinkle with age?
19. What are the 3 types of skin cancer? What is the primary cause of skin cancers? How can
skin cancer be prevented?
20. What are the 3 classifications of burns?
 TRUSTED REFERENCES

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470464/
https://www.verywellhealth.com/what-is-the-dermis-1069315
https://www.nursingtimes.net/clinical-archive/tissue-viability/skin-2-accessory-structures-of-the-skin-
and-their-functions-09-12-2019/
https://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/muscular-system#1
https://www.healthline.com/health/how-many-muscles-are-in-the-human-body

Gawkrodger DJ, Ardern-Jones M (2016) Dermatology: An Illustrated Colour Text. London:

Elsevier.

Graham-Brown R, Bourke J (2006) Mosby’s Colour Atlas and Text of Dermatology. London:

Mosby Elsevier.

Kolarsick PAJ et al (2011) Anatomy and physiology of the skin. Journal of the Dermatology
Nurses’ Association; 3: 4, 203-213.

Weller RB et al (2013) Clinical Dermatology. Oxford: Blackwell Science.

Mayo Clinic (US). Basal cell carcinoma [Internet]. Scottsdale (AZ); c2012 [cited 2012 Nov 1].
Available from:  http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/basal-cell-
carcinoma/ds00925/dsection=treatments-and-drugs.