Process Dynamics & Control

Ch.E- 410

Muhammad Rashed Javed

 Classification of the Variables
2
in a Chemical Process
 The variables (flow rates, temperatures, pressures,
concentrations, etc.) associated with a chemical process are
divided into two groups:
1. Input variables, which denote the effect of the surroundings on
the chemical process
2. Output variables, which denote the effect of the process on the
surroundings
 The input variables can be further classified into the following
categories:
1. Manipulated (or adjustable) variables, if their values can be
adjusted freely by the human operator or a control mechanism
2. Disturbances, if their values are not the result of adjustment by an
operator or a control system.
 The output variables are also classified into the following
categories:
1. Measured output variables, if their values are known by directly
measuring them
2. Unmeasured output variables, if they are not or cannot be measured
directly

Process Dynamics & Control

 Example 2.1
3
 For the CSTR reactor discussed in Example 1.2 (Figure 1.7):

 Input variables:

 Output variables:

 Notice that the effluent flow rate F can be considered either as

input or output. If there is a control valve on the effluent stream
so that its flow rate can be manipulated by a controller, the
variable F is an input, since the opening of the valve is adjusted
externally, otherwise. F is an output variable.

Process Dynamics & Control

 Example 2.1
4
 Suppose that the inlet stream in the CSTR system (Figure 1.7)
comes from an upstream unit over which we have no control.
Then CAi, Fi, and Ti are disturbances. If the coolant flow rate is
controlled by a control valve, then Fc, is a manipulated
variable, while Tci is a disturbance, Also, if the flow rate of the
effluent stream is controlled by a valve, F is a manipulated
variable; otherwise, it is an output variable.
 With respect to the output variables we have the following: T, F,
Tc and V are measured outputs since their values can be known
easily using thermocouples (T, Tco), a venture-meter (F), and a
differential pressure cell (V).

Process Dynamics & Control

 Example 2.1
5
 The concentration CA can be a measured variable if an
analyzer (gas chromatograph, infrared spectrometer, etc.) is
attached to the effluent stream. In many industrial plants such
analyzers are not available because they are expensive and/or
have low reliability (give poor measurements or break down
easily). Consequently, in such cases CA is an unmeasured
output variable.

Process Dynamics & Control

 Example 2.2
6

 For the tank heater system (Figure 1.1),

the inputs Fi and Ti are
disturbances, while Fst and F are
manipulated inputs.
 The output variables V and T can be
measured easily and they are
considered measured outputs.
 The disturbances Fi and Ti of the stirred
tank heater are easily measured; thus
they are considered measured
disturbances. On the other hand, the
feed composition for a distillation
column, an extraction unit, reactors,
and the like, is not normally measured
and consequently is considered an
unmeasured disturbance.

Process Dynamics & Control

 Example 2.2
7

Process Dynamics & Control

 Example-A Blending Process
8
 The mass fraction of A in the exit stream is denoted by x and
the desired value (set point) by xsp. Thus for this control
problem,
 the controlled variable is x,
 the manipulated variable is w2,
 and the disturbance variable is x1.

Process Dynamics & Control

 Example-A Blending Process
9

Process Dynamics & Control

 Example-A Blending Process
10
 Analyzer and transmitter: The tank exit concentration is
measured by means of an instrument that generates a
corresponding milliampere (mA) signal. This time-varying
signal is then sent to the controller.
 Feedback controller: The controller performs three distinct
calculations. First, it converts the actual set point xsp into an
equivalent internal signal ×𝑠𝑝 . Second, it calculates an error
signal e(t) by subtracting the measured value xm(t) from the
set point ×𝑠𝑝 , that is, e(t) = ×𝑠𝑝 − xm(t). Third, controller output
p(t) is calculated from the proportional control law similar to
Eq. 1-4.

 Control valve: The controller output p(t) in this case is a DC

current signal that is sent to the control valve to adjust the
valve stem position, which in turn affects flow rate w2(t).
Because many control valves are pneumatic, i.e., are
operated by air pressure, the controller output signal may
have to be converted to an equivalent air pressure signal
capable of adjusting the valve position. For simplicity, we do
not show such a transducer in this diagram.

Process Dynamics & Control

 Design Elements of a Control System
11
 Let us look next at the basic questions that we must ask and try
to answer, while attempting to design a control system that will
satisfy the control needs for a chemical process.
 Question 1: What are the operational objectives that a control
system is called upon to achieve?
 Question 2: What variables should we measure in order to
monitor the operational performance of a plant?
 Question 3: What are the manipulated variables to be used to
control a chemical process?
 Question 4: What is the best control configuration for a given
chemical process control situation?
 Question 5: How is the information. taken from the
measurements, used to adjust the values of the manipulated
variables?

Process Dynamics & Control

 Define control objectives
12
 Question 1: What are the operational objectives that a control
system is called upon to achieve?
 The central element in any control configuration is the process
that we want to control. The answer to the above question
determines the control objectives. They may have to do with:
1. Ensuring the stability of the process,
2. Suppressing the influence of external disturbances,
3. Optimizing the economic performance of a plant, or A
combination of the above.
 At the beginning the control objectives are defined
qualitatively; subsequently, they are quantified, usually in terms
of the output variables.

Process Dynamics & Control

 Example 2.6
13
 For the CSTR system discussed in Example 1.2 (Figure 1.7), the
control objective (qualitatively defined) is to ensure the
stability of the middle, unstable steady state. But such a
qualitative description of the control objectives is not useful for
the design of a control system and must be quantified.
 A quantitative translation of the qualitative control objective
requires that the temperature (an output variable) not deviate
more than from its nominal value at the unstable steady state.

Process Dynamics & Control

 Example 2.7 and 2.8
14
 For the stirred tank heater of Example 1.1, the control
objectives are to maintain the of the outlet (T) and the volume
of the fluid (V) in the tank at desired values. For this example
the quantification of the control objectives is direct and
straightforward: that is, T = Ts and V = Vs where Ts and Vs are
given, desired values.
 For the batch reactor of Example 1.3, the qualitative control
objective is the maximization of the profit. The quantitative
description of this objective is rather complex. It requires the
solution of a maximization problem, which will yield the value
of the steam now rate, Q(t), al each instant during the
reaction period.

Process Dynamics & Control

 Select Measurements
15
 Whatever our control objectives are, we need some means to
monitor the performance of the chemical process. This is done
by measuring the values Of certain variables (temperatures,
pressures, concentrations, flow rates, etc.). The second
question that arises is:
 Question 2: What variables should we measure in order to
monitor the operational performance of a plant?
 It is self-evident that we would like to monitor directly the
variables that represent our control objectives, and this is what
is done whenever possible. Such measurements are called
primary measurements.

Process Dynamics & Control

 Example 2.9
16
 For the tank heater system (Example 1.1) our control objectives are to
keep the volume and the temperature of the liquid in the tank at desired
levels, that is, T = Ts and V = Vs where Ts and Vs, are given, desired values.
 Consequently, our first attempt is to install measuring devices that will
monitor T and V directly. For the present system this is simple by using a
thermocouple (for T) and a differential pressure cell (for V).
 It sometimes happens that our control objectives are not measurable
quantities; that is, they belong to the class of unmeasured outputs. In
such cases we must measure other variables which can be measured
easily and reliably. Such supporting measurements are called secondary
measurements.
 Then we develop mathematical relationships between the unmeasured
outputs and the secondary measurements; that is,

unmeasured output = f (secondary measurement)

 which allows us to determine the values of the unmeasured outputs

(once the values of the secondary measurements are available).
 The mathematical relationship between measured and unmeasured
outputs results from empirical, experimental, or theoretical
considerations.

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 Example 2.10
17
 Consider a simple distillation column separating a binary mixture
of pentane and hexane into two product streams of pentane
(distillate) and hexane (bottoms).
 Our control objective is to maintain the production of
a distillate stream with 95 mole % pentane in the presence of
changes in the feed composition.
 It is clear that our first reaction is to use a composition analyzer to
measure the concentration of pentane in the distillate and then
using feedback control to manipulate the reflux ratio, so that we
can keep the distillate 95% in pentane.

Process Dynamics & Control

 Example 2.10
18
 An alternative control system is to use a composition analyzer
to monitor the concentration of pentane in the feed. Then in a
feedforward arrangement we can change the reflux ratio to
achieve our objective.
 Both of the control systems noted above depend on the
Composition analyzers. It is possible that such measuring
devices are either very costly or of very low reliability for an
industrial environment (failing quite often or not providing
accurate measurements).

Process Dynamics & Control

 Example 2.10
19  We can measure the temperature of the liquid at various trays
along the length of the column quite reliably, using simple
thermocouples. Then using the material and energy balances
around the trays of the column and the thermodynamic
equilibrium relationships between liquid and streams, we can
develop a mathematical relationship that gives us the
composition of the distillate if the temperatures of some selected
trays are known. Figure 2_2c shows such a control scheme that
uses temperature measurements (secondary measurements) to
estimate or infer the composition of pentane in the distillate (i.e.,
the value of the control objective).

Process Dynamics & Control

 Select Measurements
20
 The third class of measurements that we can make to monitor
the behavior of a chemical process includes direct
measurement of the external disturbances.
 Measuring the disturbances before they enter the process can
be highly advantageous because it allows us to know a priori
what the behavior of the chemical process will be and thus
take remedial control action to alleviate any undesired
consequences.
 Feedforward control uses direct measurements of the
disturbances.

Process Dynamics & Control

 Select manipulated variables
21
 Once the control objectives have been specified and the
various measurements identified, the next question we need
to ask is:
 Question 3: What are the manipulated variables to be used to
control a chemical process?
 Usually in a process we have a number of available input
variables which can be adjusted freely. Which ones we select
to use as manipulated variables is a crucial question, as the
choice will affect the quality of the control actions we take.
 For Example: To control the level of liquid in a tank we can
adjust either the flow rate of the inlet Stream (figure 1.3b) or
the flow rate of the outlet stream (figure 1.3a). Which is better
is an important question?

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 Select the control configuration
22
 After the control objectives, the possible measurements, and
the available manipulated variables have been identified, the
final problem to be solved is that of defining the control
configuration.
 Before we define a control configuration, let us look at some
control systems with different control configurations. The two
feedback control systems in Figure 1.3a and b constitute two
different control configurations. Thus the same information
(measurement of liquid level) flows to different manipulated
variables (i.e., F (Figure 1.3a) and Fi, (Figure 1.3b)).

Process Dynamics & Control

 Select the control configuration
23
 Similarly, the feedback control system (Figure 1.2) and the
feedforward control system (Figure 1.4) for the tank heater
constitute two distinctly different control configurations. For
these two control systems we use the same manipulated
variable (i.e., Fst) but different measurements. Thus for the
feedback system of Figure 1.2 we use the temperature of the
liquid in the tank, whereas for the feedforward system of
Figure 1.4 we measure the temperature of the inlet.

Process Dynamics & Control

 Select the control configuration
24
 In the examples above we notice that two control
configurations differ either in:
1. The information (measurement) flowing to the same manipulated
variable,
2. The manipulated variable to which the same information flows.
 Thus for the two feedback control systems in Figure 1.3a and b
we use the same information (measurement of the liquid level)
but different manipulated variables (F or Fi). On the contrary,
for the control systems in Figures 1.2 and 1.4, we have different
measurements (T or Ti) which are used to adjust the value of
the same manipulated variable Fst
 We can define a control configuration (or control structure) as
follows:
 A control configuration is the information structure that is used to
connect the available measurements to the available
manipulated variables.

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 Problem 1.4
25

Process Dynamics & Control

 Select the control configuration
26
 It is clear from the previous examples that normally we will
have many different control configurations for a given
chemical process, which raises the following question:
 Question 4: What is the best control configuration for a given
chemical process control situation?
 The answer to this question is very critical for the quality of the
control
system we are asked to design. Depending on how many
controlled outputs and manipulated inputs we have in a
chemical process, we can distinguish the control
configurations as either single-input, single-output (SISO) or
multiple. input, multiple-output (MIMO) control systems.
 For example, for the tank heater system:
1. If the control objective (controlled output) is to keep the liquid
level at a desired value by manipulating the effluent flow rate, we
have a SISO System.
2. On the contrary, if our control objectives are (more than one) to
keep the level and the temperature of the liquid at desired values,
by manipulating (more than one) the Steam flow rate and the
effluent flow rate, we have a MIMO system.
 In the chemical industry most of the processing systems are
multiple-input, multiple-output systems.
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 Select the control configuration
27
 Three general types Of control systems can be defined
1. Feedback control configuration
2. Inferential control configuration
3. Feedforward control configuration
 Feedback control configuration: uses direct measurements of
the controlled variables to adjust the values of the
manipulated variables (Figure 2.3). The objective is to keep
the controlled variables at desired levels (set points).

Process Dynamics & Control

 Select the control configuration
28
 Inferential control configuration:
uses secondary measurements
(because the controlled
variables cannot be measured)
to adjust the values of the
manipulated variables (Figure
2.4). The objective here is to
keep the (unmeasured)
controlled variables at desired
levels.
 The estimator uses the values of
the available measured outputs,
together with the material and
energy balances that govern
the process, to compute
mathematically (estimate) the
values of the unmeasured
controlled variables.
 These estimates, in turn, are
used by the controller to adjust
the values of the manipulated
variables.

Process Dynamics & Control

 Select the control configuration
29
 Feedforward control configuration: uses direct measurement
of the disturbances to adjust the values of the manipulated
variables (figure 2.5). The objective here is to keep the values
of the controlled output variables at desired levels.

Process Dynamics & Control

 Design the controller
30
 In every control configuration, the controller is the active
element that receives the information from the measurements
and takes appropriate control actions to adjust the values of
the manipulated variables. For the design of the controller we
must answer the following question:
 Question 5: How is the information. taken from the
measurements, used to adjust the values of the manipulated
variables?
 The answer to this question constitutes the control law, which is
implemented automatically by the controller.

Process Dynamics & Control