Lecture 18

Failure / Phase Diagrams

ChE 31000

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 1 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

The S-N Curve

A material has a fatigue limit A material without a fatigue limit

Ferrous (iron-base) and titanium alloys Aluminum, copper…

Fatigue S–N probability

of failure curves

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 2 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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 Creep
High temperature
Static mechanical stresses

Steady-state creep rate:

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 3 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

Creep
• Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tmelt
• Deformation changes with time.

Qc is the activation energy for creep.

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 4 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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 Failure

• Simple fracture
– Ductile

– Brittle

• Fatigue

• Creep

03/20/18 Lecture 18 Slide 5 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

Phase Diagrams

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 6 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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 Solubility Limit
• Solubility limit: the maximum concentration of solute atoms
that may dissolve in the solvent to form a solid solution.

Question: What is the

solubility limit at 20 C?

Answer: 65wt% sugar.

If < 65wt% sugar: syrup

If > 65wt% sugar: syrup
+ sugar.

Phase Diagram:
Water-Sugar System

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 7 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

Phases
• Phase: a homogeneous portion of a system that has uniform
physical and chemical characteristics.

Phase A Phase B

Nickel atom
Copper atom

A single-phase system is called homogeneous, systems with

two or more phases are mixtures or heterogeneous systems.

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 8 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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 Definitions
• Component: pure metals and/or compounds of which an
alloy is composed.
• Microstructure: direct microscopic observation using
optical or electron microscopes.
• Equilibrium: a state of a system that corresponds to the
minimum of thermodynamic function called the free energy

• Phase Equilibrium: refers to equilibrium as it applies to

systems in which more than one phase may exist.

• Metastable (nonequilibrium): a state of equilibrium is

never completely achieved because the rate of approach to
equilibrium is extremely slow.

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 9 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

Definitions

• Phase diagram (equilibrium diagram): is a graphical

representation of all the equilibrium phases as a function of
temperature, pressure, and composition.
04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 10 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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 Phase Diagrams
Binary Phase Diagrams
One-component (unary)
Phase Diagram

Temperature
also called a pressure–temperature
[or P–T] diagram

Phase transformations occur when the temperature is altered

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 11 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

Binary Isomorphous Systems

• Cu-Ni (the complete
solubility occurs
because both Cu and Ni
have the same crystal
structure, FCC, similar
radii and
electronegativity).

For metallic alloys, solid

solutions are commonly
designated by
lowercase Greek letters
(α, β, γ, etc.).

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 12 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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 Interpretation of phase diagrams
• The phases that are present
• The compositions of these phases
• The percentages or fractions of the phases.

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 13 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

Determination of Phase Compositions

• If we know T and Co, then we know: Tie line, or isotherm
--the composition of each phase.
Cu-Ni
• Examples: T(°C) system
TA A
Co = 35wt%Ni tie line dus
i
At TA: 1300 L (liquid) liqu

Only Liquid (L) B L + dus
i
TB sol
CL = Co ( = 35wt% Ni)
 
At TD:
1200 L+ D (solid)
Only Solid () TD
C = Co ( = 35wt% Ni)
20 3032 35 4043 50
At TB: CLCo C wt% Ni
Both  and L Adapted from Fig. 9.2(b), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 9.2(b) is adapted from Phase Diagrams
CL = Cliquidus ( = 32wt% Ni here) of Binary Nickel Alloys, P. Nash (Ed.), ASM
International, Materials Park, OH, 1991.)
C = Csolidus ( = 43wt% Ni here)

04/14/17 Lecture 18 Slide 14 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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 Determination of Phase Amounts
• Lever rule (the inverse lever rule)
If we know T and Co, then we know: the amount of each phase
(given in wt%).
• Examples:
Cu-Ni
T(°C) system
Co = 35wt%Ni
TA A
tie line dus
At TA: Only Liquid (L) i
1300 L (liquid) liqu
WL = 100wt%, W = 0 
B L + dus
At TD: Only Solid () sol
i
TB R S
WL = 0, W = 100wt%
 
At TB: Both  and L 1200 L+ D
TD (solid)
S 43  35
WL  
  73wt % 20 3032 35 4043 50
R S 43  32 CLCo C
wt% Ni
R
W  = 27wt%
RS
04/14/17 Lecture 18 Slide 15 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

Determination of Phase Amounts

• Lever rule (the inverse lever rule):

• Phase volume fractions:

For an alloy consisting of α and β phases:

04/14/17 Lecture 18 Slide 16 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys
• Equilibrium Cooling

04/14/17 Lecture 18 Slide 17 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys

• Nonequilibrium Cooling
(Diffusion rates are low for
the solid phase)

the microstructure of an
as-cast bronze alloy that
was found in Syria, and
which has been dated to
the 19th century BC.

04/14/17 Lecture 18 Slide 18 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys

Solid-solution strengthening

04/14/17 Lecture 18 Slide 19 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

Binary Eutectic Systems

easily melted, has a special
2 components composition with a min Tmelt.
T(°C)
Ex.: Cu-Ag system 1200
• 3 single phase regions L (liquid)
(L, ) 1000 Solidus
• Limited solubility:  L +  779°C L+
TE 800
: mostly Cu 8.0 71.9 91.2
: mostly Ni 600
• TE: No liquid below TE Solvus 
• CE: Min. melting T 400

composition 200
0 20 40 60 CE 80 100
Co, wt% Ag
CE: eutectic composition; TE: eutectic temperature
(horizontal solidus line at TE is called the eutectic
isotherm)
04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 20 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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 EX: Pb-Sn EUTECTIC SYSTEM (1)
• For a 40wt%Sn-60wt%Pb alloy at 150C, find...
--the phases present? Pb-Sn
T(°C) system
--the compositions of
the phases? 300
L (liquid)

200  L +  183°C L+ 

18.3 61.9 97.8
150
100 

0 20 40 60 80 100
Co
Adapted from Fig. 9.7, Co, wt% Sn
Callister 6e. (Fig. 9.7 adapted
from Binary Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed., Vol. 3, T.B.
Massalski (Editor-in-Chief), ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1990.)
04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 21 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

EX: Pb-Sn EUTECTIC SYSTEM (2)

• For a 40wt%Sn-60wt%Pb alloy at 150C, find...
--the phases present:  +  Pb-Sn
--the compositions of T(°C) system
the phases:
C = 11wt%Sn 300
C = 99wt%Sn L (liquid)
--the relative amounts L + 
200  183°C L+ 
of each phase: 18.3 61.9 97.8
150
59 R S
W  67wt % 100
88 
29
W  33wt %
88 0 11 20 40 60 80 99100
Co
Adapted from Fig. 9.7, Co, wt% Sn
Callister 6e. (Fig. 9.7 adapted
from Binary Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed., Vol. 3, T.B.
Massalski (Editor-in-Chief), ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1990.)
04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 22 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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 DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSTRUCTURE IN EUTECTIC
ALLOYS

Schematic representations of
the equilibrium
microstructures for a lead–tin
alloy of composition C1 as it is
cooled from the liquid-phase
region.

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 23 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSTRUCTURE IN EUTECTIC

ALLOYS

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 24 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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 DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSTRUCTURE IN EUTECTIC
ALLOYS

The eutectic
structure for the
lead–tin system.

Eutectic point:

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 25 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSTRUCTURE IN EUTECTIC ALLOYS

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 26 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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 Equilibrium Diagrams Having
Intermediate Phases or Compounds
• Eutectic systems that we have studied so far have
only two solid phases (α and β) that exist near the
ends of phase diagrams. These phases are called
terminal solid solutions.
• Some binary alloy systems have intermediate
solid solution phases. In phase diagrams, these
phases are separated from the composition
extremes (0% and 100%).

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 27 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

Terminal & intermediate solid solutions

• Cu-Zn, α and η are terminal solid solutions, β, β’, γ, δ, ε
are intermediate solid solutions.

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 28 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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 Binary Phase Diagram

Eutectic Reaction

Intermetallic compounds

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 29 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

Eutectoid Reactions
• Eutectoid Reactions: Upon cooling, a solid phase
transforms into two other solid phases according to the
reaction.

Eutectoid isotherm

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 30 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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 Peritectic Reactions
• Peritectic Reactions: upon heating, one solid phase
transforms into a liquid phase and another solid phase.

04/19/21 Lecture 18 Slide 31 Intro to Materials Science ChE 31000

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