SFL1013 TECHNIQUES IN PHYSICS LABORATORY

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
FACULTY SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
Pre-Lab Report

ID NAME SIGNATURE
E20202027278 MUHAMMAD FAIZ BIN MUHAMAD faiz
ZAILANI
E20202027286 YASRIQ BINTI YAHYA
yas
E20202027280 NOREMALIN FARISHA RAUDAH BINTI
HAFZAM NIZAM
ema
E20202027281 NOOR ASYIKIN BINTI SAHARUDIN asy

GROUP GROUP 1
ASSIGNMENT 1
TITTLE

EXPERIMENT 11/01/2021
DATE
SUBMISSION 22/01/2021
DATE
 ZEROTH ERROR
Positive&Negative
>What is Zeroth Error?
Zero error is a systematic error. Zero errors are caused by faulty equipment that doesn't
reset to zero properly. Check before you start measuring that the measuring instruments
read zero for zero input. A zero error would affect every reading you take.
>How to apply Zero correction to prevent zero error
In a circuit, we need to apply zero correction to prevent the zero errors. They need to be
corrected by taking the corrected by taking the appropriate steps. We first begin with
calculating the zero error in the instrument and then adding or subtracting it from the
calculated value to get the accurate measurement.
>Example of Zero error

Zero Error of Vernier Caliper

1. The zero error is determined by tightening the jaws of the vernier calipers.
2. Zero error must be eliminated from the reading.
Images below show the reading of 3 vernier calipers when their jaws are tightly closed.
Find the z
a.

Zero error = 0.02 cm

b.

Zero error = -0.06cm

c.

Zero error = 0 cm (No zero error)

 THERMOMETER
• EQUIPMENT AND CONCEPT
Laboratory thermometers are devices used to measure temperature. There are many types of lab
thermometers such as differential, mechanical, logging. They are made of metal or glass and
strengthened through thermal tempering or annealing. The way a laboratory thermometer works
depends upon its type.

Example of liquid-in-glass thermometer

• HOW TO USE
➢ Take two beakers and place them on a table.
➢ Fill them with hot and cold water respectively.
➢ Take a laboratory thermometer.
➢ Observe the initial level of mercury in the thermometer.
➢ Place the thermometer in hot water, do not touching the bottom of the beaker. This will
garner a more accurate temperature.
➢ Observe the change in the mercury level.
➢ Take out the thermometer and dip it in cold water.
➢ Observe the change in the mercury level.
✓ Mercury level rises when kept in hot temperature while in the case of cold water,
mercury level comes down from previous level.

• OPERATION PRINCIPLES
These thermometers work on the principle of thermal expansion of the fluid with the change in the
temperature is to be measured. Temperature change can be determined using these thermometers
which rely on pressure measurement.

When mercury gets hotter, it expands by an amount that’s directly related to the temperature.

• TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

o The temperature ranges from -10˚C to 110˚C

o Designed for lab purposes such as checking boiling point, freezing point, or
temperature of other substances.
o For checking the temperature of a solvent but not a clinical one.
o Risk of mercury spill if the glass tube breaks.
 VERNIER CALIPER
• EQUIPMENT AND CONCEPT
Vernier caliper used to measure distances with a greater accuracy than other
measuring scale. There are many parts that can be use and have a different function.
Firstly, lower jaws can used to measure outer dimension of object such as the length,
width or diameter. Secondly, upper jaws can be used to measure inside dimensions of
hollow object such as diameter of pipes. Lastly, depth rod can be used to measure the
depths of hole or steps.

• HOW TO USE
Close the jaws lightly to the object to be measured. Read the main scale in the Vernier
caliper which is the whole number and the first decimal. Next read the Vernier scale
which is find the line in Vernier scale perfectly with any line in main scale. That mark
means the second decimal.

• OPERATION PRINCIPLE
Vernier caliper has two jaws. One of these jaws is moving while the other is fixed. The fixed
jaw is connected to the main scale of the caliper while the moving jaw is connected to the
Vernier scale. The Vernier scale uses the basic principle of alignment of line segments to
improve the accuracy of the readings.

• TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
The smallest value of the main scale 0.1cm or 1mm. The Vernier scale can read to 0.05 mm.
So, using both scales, the width can be read to the nearest 0.005 cm or 0.05 mm.
 MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

• EQUITMENT AND CONCEPT

Micrometer screw gauge used to measure length, diameter, etc. There are many parts in
micrometer screw gauge that have function that make the result more precise than the
Vernier caliper. There are two scale on micrometer screw gauge which is main scale and
micrometer scale.

• HOW TO USE
First, place the object between anvil and spindle and turn the thimble until anvil and spindle
grip the object. Next turn the ratchet until it starts to click. Then read the main scale on a
sleeve and read the micrometer scale. Main scale has a whole number and first decimal
point, micrometer scale has a first and second decimal point. Lastly, add the main scale and
the micrometer scale to get the final reading.

• OPERATION PRINCIPLE
The operation of principle micrometer screw gauge is based on screw and nut. The screw
rotates one revolution on the screw, then the screw moves linearly by one pitch
distance (Rotation moment to linear moment).

• TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
The minimum length can be measure by micrometer screw gauge is 1mm/100 = 0.01. Size of
micrometer depend on the size on the workpiece. Usually range of measuring are from 0 to
25 mm, 25 to 50 mm, 125 to 150 mm and up to 575 to 600 mm are available.
 VOLTMETER
• EQUIPMENT AND CONCEPT

A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure voltage or electrical potential difference

between two points in basic electric circuits. The unit of potential difference is volts.
Symbolic representation a voltmeter in a circuit diagram is represented by the letter V in a
circle. There are two types of measurement which is DC voltmeter and AC voltmeter.

voltmeter symbol

• HOW TO USE
➢ Using the red probe to plug it in to the positive side of the meter and for the black probe, you
must plug it in to the negative side of the meter.
➢ Pick the type or measurement you want to measure and turn the selector dial or
switch according to the measurement. For example, to measure direct current such as
battery, you can use DCV. To measure alternating current such as wall outlet, you can use
ACV.
➢ Choose the most suitable range setting which should be the top end of the voltage you
wanted to read. The options are 5 to 1000 for the DCV side and 10 to 1000 for the ACV side.
Not every voltmeter has this kind of option in the setting.
➢ Proceed by turning the meter on.
➢ Holding the insulated probe handle and making sure the red probe is touching the positive
side of a DC circuit or either side of an AC circuit. Meanwhile the black probe should make
contact with the other side.
➢ Read the digital display that is being shown on the voltmeter.

• OPERATION PRICIPLE
The main principle of voltmeter is must be connected in parallel for measure the voltage. Parallel
connection is used because a voltmeter is built in such the simplest way that it's a really high value
of resistance. So, if that prime resistance is connected in series than the current flow is almost zero
which implies the circuit has become open.

If it's connected in parallel, then the load impedance comes parallel with the high resistance of the
voltmeter and hence the mix will give almost the identical the impedance that the load had. Also, in
shunt circuit we all know that the voltage is same therefore the voltage between the voltmeter and
also the load is nearly same and hence voltmeter measures the voltage.

For a perfect voltmeter, we've got the resistance is to be infinity and hence the current drawn to be
zero so there'll be no power loss within the instrument.
• TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
➢ Voltmeters have maximum ranges of 1000 to 3000 volts (V)
➢ The accuracy is about ± 1 percent for a 3 digit and ± 0.0002 percent for a 6 digit.
➢ Voltmeters for measuring high potential differences require heavy-duty probes,
wiring, and insulators.
➢ Voltmeters are adequate because the voltages encountered are moderate, usually
between 1 V and 15 V.

Example of voltmeter
 AMMETER.
What is ammeter?

Ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit. The unit of
current in S.I unit is ampere (A). The measuring range of ammeter depends on the value of
resistance. By the current, ammeter classify into two categories which are AC ammeter and DC
ammeter. The ammeter that measures the DC is known as DC ammeter such as permanent magnet
moving coil ammeter and for the AC ammeter such as rectifier ammeter.

How to use ammeter in a circuit?

The easiest way to use an ammeter is to break the circuit open and insert an ammeter in series to
allow all the electrons flowing through meters. These are step to set up an ammeter and breaking
the circuit.

• Firstly, we need to set the range and kind of current we want to use either direct current or
alternating current. For the range we advisedly to choose the highest setting to prevent from
blowing the meters internal fuse if the amperage is too high.
• Then, we need to test the internal fuse of ammeters. This action is to avoid from false reading.
• After that, we break the circuit but before we do, we need to make sure the power is off and
batteries are removed to prevent any incident happened. The ammeter will be tied into the
circuit and the electric current would be pass through the meter’ Then ammeter can
measure the current.

Operating Principle
The principle of ammeter is that the resistance and the reactance must be in a very low current.
Since the voltage drop across the ammeter should be minimal, the ammeter has a very low
impedance. The reason why we connect the ammeter in series not in parallel is because we need to
make sure that objects in a circuit has the same current. If not, due to the higher current that
passing through ammeter it would cause short circuited and ammeter would be easily broken. That
is why the ammeter cannot be connected in parallel in a circuit.
Technical Specification.

➢ The input voltage is 249v.

➢ The maximum power consumption is 1 watt.
➢ The minimum power of consumption is 0.60 watt.
➢ The ideal weight of ammeter is 0.3 kg.
➢ The smallest scale is 0.02A.
➢ The limitation of instruments are it could not store any data.
-It is also need multiple heavy meters to measure different range of amperage.
- The ammeter is heavy and it is expensive than other measuring instruments.
- The advantages of using ammeter are it is strong and portable. It is also used
both AC and DC measurements.

Figure 1: Example of ammeter

 GALVANOMETER
Galvanometer is an instrument used to detect and measure a small electric current. The
difference between ammeter and galvanometer is that galvanometer shows both direction and
magnitude whereas ammeter shows the magnitude of current only. The type of galvanometer that
often used is the D.Arsonval/Weston or moving coil type.

To use a galvanometer, we need a battery, a rheostat and reversing key. When we close the
circuit, the current will flow. Then the pointer of the needle deflect. The direction of deflection of the
needle changes with the change in the direction of flow current. The galvanometer can be converted
into an ammeter by connecting a resistor of low resistance in a parallel to the galvanometer.

Operation principle
Galvanometer works on the principle of conversion which electrical energy convert into
mechanical energy. When electric current flows in a magnetic field, it experiences torque and it
would rotate through an angle proportional to the current flowing.

Technical specification

➢ The limitation of galvanometer are it has slow response. -It is also has low sensitivity
-Overloading can damage any kind of galvanometer easily.

The advantage of using galvanometer are they are accurate and reliable.

➢ -They will not be affected by a strong magnetic field.

➢ The smallest scale of galvanometer is 10 division per Ma and a voltage sensitivity of 2
divisions per Mv.

Figure 2: Example of galvanometer