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C4 Cheat Sheet: Usual Types of Questions Tips What Can Go Ugly
C4 Cheat Sheet: Usual Types of Questions Tips What Can Go Ugly
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3 – Binomial 𝑛(𝑛−1) Many things!
Expanding out an expression of (1 + 𝑘𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛(𝑘𝑥) + (𝑘𝑥)2
2!
Expansion the form (1 + 𝑘𝑥)𝑛 , where 𝑛 is 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) Lack of brackets when squaring/cubing
negative or fractional. + (𝑘𝑥)3 + ⋯ things, e.g. you need (2𝑥)3 = 8𝑥 3 not 2𝑥 3
3!
Expanding out an expression of Your expression may be a binomial expansion in disguise, e.g. With say (3 + 4𝑥)−1, forgetting to raise the
the form (𝑎 + 𝑘𝑥)𝑛 , where 𝑎 1 3 3 you factor out to the power of -1.
1 1 1 − ×−
needs to be factorised out first. (1 −
= − 2𝑥) = 1 + (− )
2 (−2𝑥) + 2 2 (−2𝑥)2 + ⋯ Forgetting to put the factorial in the
√1 − 2𝑥 2 2!
Finding the product of two denominators of the Binomial coefficients
When the first term is not 1, you have to factorise this □ □
Binomial expansions, e.g. (a common error is instead of )
number out, raised to the power outside the brackets. e.g. 3 3!
√1 + 𝑥 1 1 1
→ (1 + 𝑥)2 (1 − 𝑥)−2 1 1 5 2
Being careless in using your calculator when
√1 − 𝑥 (4 + 5𝑥)2 = 42 (1 + 𝑥) simplifying coefficients.
4 Be ridiculously careful with signs!
1 5
= 2 [1 + ( 𝑥) + ⋯ ] Accidentally forgetting the minus in the
2 4 1
Ensure the outer brackets are maintained till the very end, power when expanding say (𝑥+1)2
when you expand them out.
When finding the product of two expansions, then if you
needed up to the 𝑥 2 term, then you only need to find up to
the 𝑥 2 term in each of the two expansions. Only consider
things in the expansion which are up to 𝑥 2 . e.g.
1 + 𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 1 1
√ = = (1 + 𝑥)2 (1 − 𝑥)−2
1 − 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥
1 1 1
(1 + 𝑥)2 ≈ 1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2
2 8
−
1 1 3
(1 − 𝑥) 2 ≈ 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2
2 8
1 1 1 1 1 3
(1 + 𝑥)2 (1 − 𝑥)−2 ≈ (1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )
2 8 2 8
1 3 1 1 1
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥2
2 8 2 4 8
1
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2
2
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4- Appreciate that 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 Example of implicit differentiation (which involves collecting A classic is to accidentally treat 𝑥 or 𝑦 as
Differentiation represents ‘exponential growth’ 𝑑𝑦 constants rather than variables, when
the terms on one side and factorising it out):
𝑑𝑥
when 𝑎 > 1, and ‘exponential 𝑑𝑦 differentiating implicitly. Note that
decay’ when 0 < 𝑎 < 1 (and “Given that 𝑥𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , find .” 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 (𝑎𝑥) = 𝑎 if 𝑎 is a constant, but (𝑥𝑦) =
from C3, know the graphs for Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥: 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
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4 9+𝜆 −5 − 𝜆
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝐴 = ( 16 ) − ( 13 + 4𝜆 ) = ( 3 − 4𝜆 )
−3 −3 − 2𝜆 2𝜆
−5 − 𝜆 1
Thus: ( 3 − 4𝜆 ) ⋅ ( 4 ) = 0
2𝜆 −2
−5 − 𝜆 + 12 − 16𝜆 − 4𝜆 = 0
1
𝜆=
3
1 1
9+ 9
3 3
Thus: 𝑃 = 13 + 4(13) = 14 13
1 2
−3 − 2( ) −3
( 3 ) ( 3)
Suppose we wanted to start from a position vector
2 1
(2) and wanted to go 10 units in the direction (0). The key
2 3
is to convert the direction to a unit vector, because moving
by it then means we’ve moved a distance of 1. Since
1
1
√12 + 02 + 32 = 2, the direction as a unit vector is 2 (0).
3
2 1 7
1
Thus the new point is (2) + 10 × 2 (0) = ( 2 )
2 3 17
6 - Integration Integrate a large variety of One often forgotten integration is exponential functions such Where to start!
expressions. See the ‘integration as 2𝑥 . Differentiating has effect of multiplying by 𝑙𝑛 of the One big problem is just not knowing what
cheat sheet’ overleaf. But by base, and thus integrating divides by it. i.e. method to use to integrate a particular
category: 𝑑 𝑥 1 𝑥 expression. The cheat sheet overleaf should
(2 ) = ln 2 ⋅ 2𝑥 ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 +𝐶
o Integrating trig 𝑑𝑥 ln 2 help, as should lots of practice of a variety
functions, including Know the two double angle formulae for 𝑐𝑜𝑠 like the back of of expressions!
reciprocal functions and your hand, for use when integrating sin2 𝑥 or cos 2 𝑥 Similarly getting stuck on integration by
squared functions In general, know your integrals of all the ‘trig squares’, i.e. substitution, because you can’t get the
sin2 𝑥, cos2 𝑥 , sec 2 2𝑥, sin2 𝑥 , cos2 𝑥 , tan2 𝑥 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥, sec 2 𝑥 , cot 2 𝑥 whole original expression only in terms of
etc. For integration by ‘reverse chain rule’, always ‘consider’ the new variable (𝑡 or otherwise).
o Integrating by ‘reverse some sensible expression to differentiate, then adjust for the Perhaps the all-time biggest mistake is
chain rule’ (also known factor difference. e.g. forgetting to consider the effects of chain
as ‘integration by ∫(4 − 3𝑥)5 𝑑𝑥 rule. e.g. Accidentally doing
inspection’).
Then your working might be: ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 2𝑥
o Integrating by a given
substitution. “Consider 𝑦 = (4 − 3𝑥)6 . Then
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o Integration by parts. 𝑑𝑦 Sign errors when integrating/differentiating
= 6(4 − 3𝑥)5 × (−3) = −18(4 − 3𝑥)5
o Integrating by use of 𝑑𝑥 trig functions. Other than sin and cos, be
1
partial fractions. ∴ ∫(4 − 3𝑥)5 𝑑𝑥 = − (4 − 3𝑥)6 + 𝐶 careful about cot/cosec:
18 𝑑
o Integrating top heavy
For integration by substitution, the official specification says (cot 𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
fractions by algebraic
“Except in the simplest of cases, the substitution will be 𝑑𝑥
division. thus ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝐶
given.”
A common one: Forgetting about the chain
Remember that starting with the substitution, say 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 +
Be able to differentiate rule when integrating expressions of the
1, it helps to make 𝑥 the subject, except in some cases where
parametric equations: form (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥)𝑐 , see ∫(4 − 3𝑥)5 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 there’s a trigonometric substitution, e.g. if 𝑢 = sin 𝑥 + 1, but
example.
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 sin 𝑥 appears in the expression to integrate, then we might
𝑑𝑡 Remember that constants differentiate to
make sin 𝑥 the subject instead.
Calculate volumes of revolution 𝑑
nothing, i.e. (𝜋 2 ) = 0 not 2𝜋!
Differentiate and make 𝑑𝑥 the subject also, then ensure 𝑑𝑥
both for normal and parametric
original expression is only in terms of new variable. Similarly ln 𝑐 is a constant. 𝑥 ln 2 would
equations:
Don’t feel as if you need to memorise a separate formula for differentiate to ln 2.
𝑉 = 𝜋∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
parametric volumes of revolution, since 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 clearly by If 𝑢2 = 𝑥 + 1 is the substitution, you’re
𝑑𝑡
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑦2 𝑑𝑡 the fact that the 𝑑𝑡’s cancel.
doing unnecessary work if you then square
𝑑𝑡
root. Differentiating implicitly:
Solve differential equations. You have to change the limits whenever you do either of: (a)
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
e.g. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 parametric integration or (b) integration by substitution, 2𝑢 =1
because you’re integrating in terms of a new variable. 𝑑𝑥
Trapezium Rule as per C2, but 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
now with C3/C4 expressions to This is more use for STEP, but remember that ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = This is much much tidier!
𝑏
integrate. You will frequently be − ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥), useful when the limits are the wrong way round. Forgetting to change your limits for either
asked to compare the actual You can tidy things up sometimes using − ∫ −𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = parametric integration or integration by
area and the estimated area + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, since the -1 can be factored out the integral. substitution!
using the rule, and the For integration by parts, if you ever have to IBP twice, write But note that in integration by substitution,
percentage error. the second integral as a separate result first before once you’ve changed back to the original
substituting it in after. This is to avoid sign errors and keep variable (probably 𝑥), you should use the
things tidy. e.g. Workings might be: original limits.
Don’t try and use integration by parts if you
∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
can use ‘integration by inspection’.
𝑑𝑣 2
e.g. For ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 , then integration by parts
𝑢 = 𝑥2 = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 would lead to a dead end.
𝑑𝑢
= 2𝑥 𝑣 = sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 − ∫ 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
“For ∫ 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥:”
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𝑑𝑣 For differential equations, ensure the
𝑢 = 2𝑥 = sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑□
variable at the top of the matches what
𝑑𝑢 𝑑□
= 2 𝑣 = − cos 𝑥 you’ve moved to the LHS. e.g. If
𝑑𝑥
∫ 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −2𝑥 cos 𝑥 − ∫ −2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑟2𝑡
𝑑𝑟
= −2𝑥 cos 𝑥 + ∫ 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 then it’s the 𝑡 you want on the LHS.
= −2𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥
∴ ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 − (−2𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥)
2
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C4 Integration Cheat Sheet
𝒇(𝒙) How to deal with it ∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 (+constant) FormBk? 𝒇(𝒙) How to deal with it ∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 (+constant) FB?
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 Standard result − cos 𝑥 No 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 For any product of sin and cos 1 No
− cos 4𝑥
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 Standard result sin 𝑥 No with same coefficient of 𝑥, use 8
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒙 In formula booklet, but use ln|sec 𝑥| Yes double angle.
sin 𝑥 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 which is of the form sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 ≡ sin 4𝑥
2
cos 𝑥
𝑘𝑓 ′(𝑥) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 Of form 𝑔′ (𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑒 sin 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) 𝒙 Use algebraic division. 𝑥 − ln|𝑥 + 1|
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝒙 For both sin2 𝑥 and cos 2 𝑥 use 1 1 No 𝑥 1
𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 𝒙+𝟏 ≡1−
identities for cos 2𝑥 2 4 𝑥+1 𝑥+1
cos 2𝑥 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝑥 𝟏 Use partial fractions. ln|𝑥| − ln|𝑥 + 1|
1 1 𝒙(𝒙 + 𝟏)
sin2 𝑥 = − cos 2𝑥
2 2 𝟒𝒙 Reverse chain rule. Of form 2 ln|𝑥 2 + 1|
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝒙 cos 2𝑥 = 2 cos 2 𝑥 − 1 1 1 No 𝟐
𝒙 +𝟏 𝑘𝑓 ′(𝑥)
1 1 𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 ∫
2 4 𝑓(𝑥)
cos 2 𝑥 = + cos 2𝑥 𝒙 Power around denominator so 1
2 2 − (𝑥 2 + 1)−1
(𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐 𝑘𝑓′ (𝑥)
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝒙 1 + tan2 𝑥 ≡ sec 2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − 𝑥 No 𝟐
NOT of form ∫ . Rewrite as 2
𝑓(𝑥)
tan2 𝑥 ≡ sec 2 𝑥 − 1 product.
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 Would use substitution 𝑢 = −ln|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + cot 𝑥| Yes 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1)−2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + cot 𝑥, but too hard Reverse chain rule (i.e. “Consider
for exam. 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 1)−1 " and differentiate.
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒙 Would use substitution 𝑢 = ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| Yes 𝟖𝒙𝟐 Fraction top heavy so do algebraic 1
2𝑥 + ln|1 − 2𝑥|
sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥, but too hard for 𝟒𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 division first. Then split into 2
algebraic fractions as 1
exam. − ln |2𝑥 + 1|
cos 𝑥 4𝑥 2 − 1 = (2𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1) 2
𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝒙 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 which is of the form ln|𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥| Yes 𝟐𝒙+𝟏 1 2𝑥+1
sin 𝑥 𝒆 For any function where ‘inner 𝑒
𝑓 ′(𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝟏 function’ is linear expression, 2
𝑓(𝑥) 1
𝟏 − 𝟑𝒙 divide by coefficient of 𝑥 − ln|1 − 3𝑥|
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙 By observation. − cot 𝑥 No! 3
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝒙 By observation. tan 𝑥 Yes (but 𝒙√𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 Use sensible substitution. 𝑢 = 1 3
(2𝑥 + 1)2 (3𝑥 − 1)
memorise) 2𝑥 + 1 or even better, 𝑢2 = 15
𝒄𝒐𝒕𝟐 𝒙 1 + cot 2 𝑥 ≡ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 − 𝑥 No 2𝑥 + 1.
𝒆𝒙 Standard result 𝑒𝑥 No 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟓 𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 Reverse chain rule. 1 6
sin 𝑥
𝒂𝒙 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 → ln 𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 𝑎 1 No 6
𝑎𝑥 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝒙 Use identities in C3 formula 1 Sort of
Then differentiate implicitly. ln(𝑎) − cos 5𝑥
𝟏 Standard result ln 𝑥 No booklet, 10
1
sin 3𝑥 cos 2𝑥 = (sin 5𝑥 + cos 𝑥) 1
𝒙 2 + sin 3𝑥
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 𝑑𝑣
Use IBP, where 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 = 1 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 No Note: has never come up in an exam. 6
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