PARTICLE PHYSICS &

COSMOLOGY
 Fundamental forces and exchange of particles
 Elementary particles
 The Quarks models
 Force unification theories

Dr. Siti Nursaila binti Alias

 Fundamental Forces of Nature

Strong force Electromagnetism Weak force Gravitational

• Holds the nuclei of • Causes electric and • Responsible for • Always attractive
atoms together magnetic effects nuclear decay • Acts between any
two pieces of
matter in the
universe
• Very important in
explaining the
structure of the
universe

Strong force Electromagnetism Weak force Gravitational

 Fundamental Forces of Nature

Force
Particles Relative
Force carrier Range
experiencing strength
particle
Quarks and Strongest
Strong force g (gluon) Short range
gluon (1)
Electrically
Electromagnetism γ (photon) Infinity 1/137
charged
Quarks and
Weak force W+, W-, Zo Short range 10-6
leptons
Graviton
All particles Weakest
Gravity (not yet Infinity
with mass (10-41)
observed)
Elementary Particles (History)
Elementary Particles

 a subatomic particle with no substructure

Elementary particles

Elementary fermions Elementary bosons

 Elementary Fermions

 follows Fermi–Dirac statistics

 has half odd integer spin.
 obey the Pauli exclusion principle.

Elementary
Fermions

Quarks and Leptons and

antiquarks antileptons

Electron, Muon,
Up, Charm, Top, Tau,
electron muon
down strange bottom Tau neutrino
neutrino neutrino
 Quarks and Antiquarks

 combine to form composite particles called hadrons

 are never found in isolation, can be found only within hadrons.
 Have various intrinsic properties, including electric charge, mass, color
charge, and spin.
 experience all four fundamental interactions
 electromagnetism
 gravitation
 strong interaction
 weak interaction
 For every quark flavor there is a corresponding type of antiparticle,
antiquark, have equal magnitude but opposite sign.
Quarks and Antiquarks

Mass Electric
Flavor Generation Spin
(eV c-2) charge
Up (u) 1st 2.2 M +2/3 e 1/2
Down (d) 1st 4.7 M -1/3 e 1/2
Charm (c) 2nd 1.275 G +2/3 e 1/2
Strange (s) 2nd 95 M -1/3 e 1/2
Top (t) 3rd 173.07 G +2/3 e 1/2
Bottom (b) 3rd 4.18 G -1/3 e 1/2
Leptons and Antileptons

 Two main classes

 Charged (can combine with other particles to form
various composite particles such as atoms and positronium)
 Neutral (rarely interact with anything, and are consequently rarely
observed)
 experience three fundamental interactions
 electromagnetism
 gravitation
 weak interaction
 For every lepton flavor, there is a corresponding type of antiparticle,
known as an antilepton, have equal magnitude but opposite sign.
Leptons and Antileptons

Mass Electric
Flavor Generation Spin
(eV c-2) charge
Electron (e-) 1st 0.511 M -e 1/2
Electron
1st <2.2 0 1/2
neutrino (ve)
Muon () 2nd 105.7 M -e 1/2
Muon
2nd <0.17 M 0 1/2
neutrino (v)
Tau () 3rd 1.777 G -e 1/2
Tau neutrino
3rd <15.5 M 0 1/2
(v)
Elementary Fermions
Elementary Fermions
 Elementary Bosons

 a particle that follows Bose–Einstein statistics.

 there is no restriction on the number of them that occupy the
same quantum state.
 holds for all particles with integer spin (s = 0, 1, 2, etc.)

Elementary
bosons

Gauge Scalar
bosons bosons

Higgs
Photon gluon Z boson W boson boson
Gauge Boson

Mass Electric
Flavor Spin Interaction
(eV c-2) charge
Photon (γ) 0 0e 1 Electromagnetism
Gluon (g)
0 0e 1 Strong interaction

W boson 80.4 G ± 1e 1 Weak interaction

Z boson 91.2 G 0e 1 Weak interaction
Scalar Boson

Higgs Boson (Ho)

 an elementary particle in the Standard Model of particle
physics, produced by the quantum excitation of the Higgs field

Properties Value
Mass (eV c-2) 125.18 G
Electric charge 0
Spin 0
Elementary Particles
Graviton (G)

 the hypothetical quantum of gravity, an elementary particle

that mediates the force of gravity.

Parameter Value
Mass 0
Electric Charge 0e
Spin 2
Force Unification Theories
Electroweak Unification
Theory

 the unified description of two of the four known fundamental interactions of

nature: electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force.

 if the universe is hot enough (approximately 1015 K, a temperature not

exceeded since shortly after the Big Bang), then the electromagnetic force
and weak nuclear force merge into a combined electroweak force.

Electromagnetic
force
Electroweak
force
Weak nuclear
force
Grand Unification Theory

 a model in particle physics in which, at high energies, the three

gauge interactions of the Standard Model comprising the
electromagnetic, weak, and strong forces are merged into a
single force.

Electromagnetic
force
Electroweak
force
Weak nuclear
force Electronuclear
force

Strong nuclear
force
Force Unification Theories
 PARTICLE PHYSICS &
COSMOLOGY
 The standard model and the early universe

Dr. Siti Nursaila binti Alias

Star

 an astronomical object consisting of a luminous spheroid

of plasma held together by its own gravity.
 Star

Intermediate-mass
Low mass stars High-mass Stars Very High-Mass Stars
stars
• 0.08-0.8 times of the • 0.8-8 times of the • 8-20 times of the • the rarest and
Sun’s mass. Sun’s mass. Sun’s mass shortest lived.
• the longest lived of • have lifetimes that • very luminous and • Only one in about
the energy- range between 50 short lived. five hundred
producing objects million and 20 billion • forge heavy thousand stars has
in the universe. years. elements in their more than twenty
• the faintest ones, • Nuclear reactions in cores, explode as times the mass of
and thus are hard these stars make supernovas, and the Sun.
to detect. most of the carbon expel these • these stars are so
and nitrogen in the elements into luminous that they
universe. space. are easily seen at
• When intermediate- great distances.
mass stars die, they
blow off their
atmospheres,
dispersing such
elements across
space.
Doppler Effect

 The difference between the observed wavelength of the

line and its actual wavelength
 The specific information about stars within galaxies can
be determined by application of the Doppler effect.

    o v
 
o o c

 : apparent wavelength
 o : original wavelengt h
v : speed of an object
c : speed of light
 Doppler Effect

Red shift Blue shift

• Increase in wavelength
(decrease in energy), with a
corresponding decrease in
frequency, of an EM wave
• the star is rotating in a
direction that is away from
the Earth
• Decrease in wavelength
(increase in energy), with a
corresponding increase in
frequency, of an EM wave
• the star is rotating in a
direction that is towards the
Earth
 Galaxy

 a gravitationally bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar

gas, dust, and dark matter.

 Its range in size from dwarfs with just a few hundred million (108)
stars to giants with one hundred trillion (1014) stars, each orbiting its
galaxy's center of mass.
Types

Elliptical Spiral Irregular

Barred Normal
 Galaxies (Elliptical galaxies)

 round or elliptical, contain

no visible gas and dust and
have few or no bright stars.
 They are classified with a
numerical index ranging
from 1 to 7; E0s are round,
and E7s are highly elliptical.
 The index is calculated
from the largest and
smallest diameter of the
galaxy used in the Leo 1 dwarf galaxy
following formula and
rounded to the nearest
integer.
M87 giant galaxy
Galaxies (Spiral galaxies)

Barred Spiral
 2/3 of all spiral galaxies
 has an elongated nucleus with
spiral arms springing from the
ends of the bar.
 The tightness of the arms and the
brightness of the nucleus
determine whether a barred
spiral is classified as SBa, SBb or M83 galaxy
SBc.
Galaxies (Spiral galaxies)

Normal Spiral
 The tightness of the arms and the
brightness of the nucleus determine
whether a spiral is classified as Sa, Sb or
Sc.
 Sa galaxies have larger nuclei, less
gas and dust, and fewer hot, bright
stars.
 Sc galaxies have small nuclei, lots of
gas and dust, and many hot, bright
stars. M74 galaxy
 Sb galaxies are intermediate.
Galaxies (Irregular galaxies)

 chaotic mix of gas, dust, and stars with no

obvious nuclear bulge or spiral arms.
 The Large and Small Magellanic Clouds are
visible to the unaided eye as hazy patches
in the southern hemisphere sky. Large Magellanic Cloud
 Telescopic images show that they are
irregular galaxies that are interacting
gravitationally with our own much
larger galaxy.

Small Magellanic Cloud

Diameter of a Galaxy
Cosmology

 The word “cosmology” is originated from the Greek: κόσμος

(world) and –λογία (study of)
 The study of the origin and evolution of the Universe as a
whole.
Solar System

 The planetary system we call home is located in an outer spiral arm of

the Milky Way galaxy.
 consists of our star, the Sun, and everything bound to it by gravity —
the planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune, dwarf planets such as Pluto, dozens of moons and millions of
asteroids, comets and meteoroids.
 The solar system also includes the Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud.
Planets

Planet

Terrestrial Dwarf
Gas Giants Ice Giants
planets Planets
Terrestrial Planets

 In our solar system, there are four terrestrial planets, which also
happen to be the four closest to the sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth
and Mars.
 Astronomers call them the “terrestrial planets” because they
have solid, rocky surfaces roughly similar to desert and
mountainous areas on the Earth.
Gas Giants

 A giant planet composed mainly of hydrogen and helium.

 It consists mostly of hydrogen and helium, with heavier
elements making up between 3 and 13 percent of the
mass.
 There are two gas giants in the Solar System: Jupiter and
Saturn.
Ice Giants

 A giant planet composed mainly of elements heavier than

hydrogen and helium, such as oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and
sulfur.
 It consists of only about 20% hydrogen and helium in mass.
 There are two ice giants in the Solar System: Uranus and
Neptune.
Dwarf Planets

 It is in orbit around the Sun.

 It has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body
forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly
round) shape.
 It has not cleared the neighborhood around its orbit
 It is not a satellite (a moon)
Kuiper Belt

 a large region in the cold, outer reaches of our solar system

beyond the orbit of Neptune, sometimes called the "third zone"
of the solar system.
 In addition to rock and water ice, objects in the Kuiper Belt also
contain a variety of other frozen compounds like ammonia
and methane.
 The region is named for astronomer Gerard Kuiper, who
published a scientific paper in 1951 that speculated about
objects beyond Pluto.
Oort Cloud

 lies far beyond Pluto and the most distant edges of the Kuiper
Belt.
 is believed to be a giant spherical shell surrounding the Sun,
planets and Kuiper Belt Objects.
 made of icy, comet-like objects: can be as large as mountains
and sometimes larger.
 PARTICLE PHYSICS &
COSMOLOGY
 Nuclear atom
 Dark matter

Dr. Siti Nursaila binti Alias

The Standard Model and The
Early Universe

Universe

Ordinary Dark Dark

Matter Matter Energy
Atom
Properties of Subatomic Particles

Relative
Mass Atomic mass unit
Particle charge
(kg) (amu)
(e)
Proton 1.673 × 10-27 1.007276 +1
Electron 9.109 × 10-31 0.0005486 -1
Neutron 1.675 × 10-27 1.008665 0
Dark Matter

 is composed of particles that do not absorb, reflect, or emit light,

cannot be detected by observing electromagnetic radiation.
 Slows down the expansion of the universe.

Dark matter is not

Dark matter is not Dark matter is not
Dark matter is dark clouds of normal
antimatter black holes
matter
• It emits no light and • Normal matter • Antimatter • Black holes are
cannot be seen particles are called annihilates matter gravity lenses that
directly, so it cannot baryons. on contact, bend light.
be stars or planets. • If dark matter were producing gamma • Dark matter
composed of rays. composed of black
baryons, it would be • Astronomers do not holes would create
detectable through detect enough of more lensing events
reflected light. them to account for than astronomers
dark matter. detect.
Dark Matter
Evidence
 Astronomers can see light bent
from the gravity of invisible
objects (Gravitational lensing
phenomenon)
 Astronomers can measure stars
orbiting around their galaxies
faster than they should be.
Distribution
 It is believed that dark matter
condensed first to form a
“scaffolding,” with normal
matter in the form of galaxies
and clusters following the dark
matter concentrations.
Dark Energy

 an unknown form of energy that affects the universe on the largest

scales.
 Speeds up the expansion of the universe

Scalar field Chameleon particles

• Has magnitude but does not • These hypothetical particles

have a direction vary in mass according to the
surrounding density of energy.
• On Earth, the particle would
not be detectable.
• In the emptiness of
intergalactic space, the
particle would gain mass.
Future of Universe

Closed universe Flat universe Open universe

•If actual mass •If actual mass •If actual mass

density is greater density equals density is less than
than critical mass critical mass critical mass
density, the density, the density, the
universe will universe will universe will
expand, slow, stop continue to continue to
and collapse back expand forever, expand with no
on itself into a "big but the rate of change in its rate
crunch." expansion will slow of expansion.
more and more as
time progresses.
•Everything in the
universe will
eventually
become cold.
Future of Universe

 The scale factor of the universe for

negative (Ωo < 1) or flat (Ωo = 1)
curvature increases forever.
 If the universe has a density greater
than the critical density and space is
positively curved (Ωo > 1), the
expansion eventually gives way to
contraction.
 After the contraction, a new cycle of
expansion and contraction may occur.
Expansion Age of the
Universe

Hubble’s law states that the recession speed is

proportional to distance

d 
t 
v H
t : expansion time of universe
d : distance to the galaxy
v : speed of recession
H : Hubble' s constant (in km s -1pc-1 )