Detectability region

BW

Defect size (mm)

3
2
1
ATTN
Gain (dB)

Guseful

Greserve
NSR NOISE

Ultrasound half path

Figure 2-33 Definition of the detectability region.

Sensitivity settings depend on the reference reflector and its signal-to-noise

ratio (SNR). When using the TCG (time-of-flight corrected gain) feature, first
establish the SNR for the worst detection case.

The signal-to-noise ratio is the difference in decibels (dB) between the

amplitude of a reference reflector and the average amplitude of the noise
given by electronic, coupling, probe, and test piece contributions. The SNR is
evaluated for a specific setup, target size, and UT path [see formula (2.36) and
Figure 2-34].

Ampl. target
SNR = 20 log 10  -------------------------- (2.36)
 Ampl. noise 

A practical minimum value for SNR is 10 dB or a 3:1 ratio.

Main Formulas and Ultrasonic Reference Data 63

 S N R > 10 dB

1 2 3
1

Figure 2-34 SNR evaluation for TCG feature. SNR typically should be greater
than 3:1 (10 dB).

The most commonly used reflectors for sensitivity setting are illustrated in
Figure 2-35. Specific reflectivity reflectors (depending on ultrasonic beam
path, frequency, and reflector size) for small reflectors, whose size is less than
the beam width, are given in Table 2-6.

FBW CBW FBH CBH hor

CBH vert EDM-N Cr-EDM SPHERE

SDH spherical EDM-N hor

Figure 2-35 The most commonly used reflectors for sensitivity setting.

The following relationship [see formula (2.37)] between the two artificial
reflectors, flat-bottomed holes (FBH) and side-drilled holes (SDH), may be
used for equivalent amplitudes when z > 1.5N 0 .

D FBH = ( 0.2λ 2 zD SDH ) 0.25 (2.37)

64 Chapter 2
The equivalent FBH diameter versus a spherical-bottomed hole is given by
the relationship in formula 2.38:

D FBH = 0.56 ( λD sphere ) 0.5 (2.38)

Table 2-6 Reflectivity pattern for small reference reflectors.

Reflector type Reflectivity law (far field)

FBW (counter-bore) λ -1 UT path

-1

SDH (lack of penetration) 0.5 λ -1 UT -1.5

½D SDH path

FBH normal (smooth crack) D 2 FBH λ -2 UT path

-2

Edge from misoriented -1.5  ------------------------------------

-
0.5a 0.5
K ( ε ) λ -1.5 UT path
crack12  a – UT path cos ε

Elliptical EDM notch –normal H notch λ -1.5 UT path

-1.5

Small sphere (porosity) D sphere λ -1 UT path

-2

where:

UTpath = half path

λ = wavelength
DSDH / FBH / sphere = diameter of (SDH, FBH, or sphere)
Hnotch = notch height
a = crack edge curvature radius
K(ε) = diffraction coefficient
ε = angle between incident ray and crack surface

Figure 2-36 presents the amplitude dependence level on defect size for
different reflectors: FBH, SDH, notch, sphere, and detected by shear waves,
longitudinal waves, and creeping waves.

Main Formulas and Ultrasonic Reference Data 65

 30

20

10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Amplitude variation [dB]

–10
Sphere
–20 FBH

SDH
–30
Notch T

Notch L
–40
Notch creeper

–50

Size/lambda ratio

Figure 2-36 Amplitude dependence on normalized defect size for: sphere; FBH; SDH-SW;
N-LW; N-SW; N-Cr.

2.12 Attenuation

Attenuation of ultrasonic waves is caused by absorption and scattering (see

also definition on page 30). The attenuation depends on frequency (f), grain
size ( Φ grain ) , wave type, and anisotropy coefficient.

Attenuation = constant absorption f + constant scattering f 4 (2.39)

The scattering depends on the ratio between the grain size and wavelength:

• for Φ grain < λ  Rayleigh scattering

• for Φ grain ≈ λ  stochastic scattering

• for Φ grain > λ  diffuse scattering

When testing coarse-grained parts, the frequency must be chosen according

to the following formula:

λ min > 6Φ grain (2.40)

Attenuation dependence on frequency for the most commonly used

couplants/wedges and for steel are presented in Figure 2-37 to Figure 2-39.

66 Chapter 2
 1.6 0,5

0,45
1.4

Attenuation in glycerine [dB/mm]

0,4

Attenuation in Rexolite [dB/mm]

1.2 0,35

0,3
1
0,25

0.8 0,2

0,15
0.6
0,1

0.4 0,05
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 4 6 8 10 12
Frequency [MHz] Frequency [MHz]

Figure 2-37 Attenuation dependence on frequency for glycerin/Hamikleer and Rexolite.

0,25

0,2
Attenuation [dB/mm]

0,15

0,1

0,05

0
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Frequency [MHz]

Figure 2-38 Attenuation in 2.25 Cr-Mo steel for longitudinal waves.

Main Formulas and Ultrasonic Reference Data 67