Terciu Petruț-Ciprian, PhD

Celtic Christianity and the First Discovery of America

 Roman Britain

The British Isles are a group of islands located in the northwest of the European
continent and consist of the island of Great Britain, that of Ireland and over 6,000 other small
islands. The total area is about 315 160 km2.
The climate is temperate oceanic, with mild winters and hot summers. Located in the
Atlantic Ocean, the islands are watered by heavy rainfall every season. The altitudes of the
islands are relatively low, particularly in central and southern Britain and Ireland. Scotland is
generally mountainous, especially in the northern half of the country, with the highest point
being Ben Nevis at an altitude of 1,343 m. Other mountainous regions are found in Wales and
Ireland, but rarely exceed 1000 m altitude. The western parts of Scotland and Ireland are
characterized by numerous rocky peninsulas, bathed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean, the
shift from focused to panoramic creating the image of that spectacular "imago mundi" through
spectacular cliffs.
The British islands were populated by three major Celtic tribes: Scots or Hibernians,
as the Romans called them, they occupied Ireland, the Picts occupied northern Britain, in the
present territory of Scotland, and the British occupied the rest of the island.
Julius Caesar was the first Roman to attempt to conquer Britain. Although he was
initially successful in conquering the island, he was later distracted by the outbreak of the Civil
War against Pompeii and thus the project of conquering Britain was abandoned. Emperor
Claudius will be the one to conquer most of the island, defeat any resistance and organize the
conquests in what will be the province of Britain in 43. Under the emperors Hadrian (117-138)
and Antoninus Pius (138-161) the defense of the province was strengthened by the construction
of two walls defending Britain from the extremely violent northern Caledonian tribes, who lived
in the mountains of Scotland, tribes that could not be conquered by the Romans. Christianity was
consolidated in Britain, spreading relatively easily among the locals, entering the island with the
Romans. A remarkable character of these first two centuries after Christ's incarnation is the
enigmatic King of the British, Lucius. The first mention is in an old version of the sixth century
of the book Liber Pontificalis.
 Its history became famous after it was taken over by the Venerable Bede, in the
Church History of the English people. According to Beda, in the year 156 since the Savior's
incarnation, Marcus Antoninus Verus, the fourteenth August, was made emperor along with his
brother, Aurelius Commodus. In their time, while the infallible Eleuterius was leading the
Church in Rome, Lucius, King of the British, sent him a letter requesting that he be received into
the Christian religion. Soon, his desire materialized, and since then, the British have kept faith
unaltered, peacefully and quietly until the time of Emperor Diocletian1.
Other later authors such as Geoffrey de Monmouth advance in describing the facts of
this Christian king. According to Geoffrey's version, Lucius was the only son of King Coillus.
As he ascended the throne, he closely imitated his father in all acts of kindness, so that the
British believed that Lucius was the reincarnation of his father. Wanting to save his soul, he sent
letters to Pope Eleuterius, asking him to instruct him in the Christian religion. The bishop of
Rome immediately responded to the pious king's request and sent Faganus and Duvanus to
Britain, two proven theologians who, after instructing Lucius in the mysteries of Christianity,
baptized him. Following the example of the king, people from all over the world were baptized
and they became citizens of the Kingdom of God.
After nearly eradicating paganism in Britain, the two apostles transformed the pagan
temples into churches of Christ, and the pagan priests became priests and Christian bishops.
After strengthening the Church on the island, the two went to Rome for confirmation and
returned with a large number of Latin clergy to strengthen British Christianity. During this time,
King Lucius offered his full support, especially the financial one for the organization and
development of the Church. He died peacefully in the year 156 after the incarnation of the
Savior2.
However, no tangible evidence has been found to support the existence of this
enigmatic king. Most scholars in the field, such as Arthur West Haddan, William Stubbs and
Adolf von Harnack, deny the existence of King Lucius. However, Lucius remained in the
memory of the British as the first king to embrace faith in Christ. He is revered as a saint and is
celebrated every year on December 3. We will probably never know if King Lucius really

1
The Old English Version of Bede’s Ecclesial History of the English People, translated by Thomas Miller, Old
English Series, Cambridge, Ontario, 1999, p. 16-17
2
Geoffrey of Monmouth, History of the Kings of Britain, book IV-V, translated by Aaron Thompson with revisions
by J. A. Giles, Medieval Latin Series, Cambridge, Ontario, 1999, p. 70-72
existed, it is certain that in Britain, Christianity has found a prosperous land to develop without
facing oppression, pressure or persecution until the reign of Emperor Diocletian.
Britain was frequently invaded by the northern tribes of the Picts who managed to
break through Hadrian's wall and penetrate deep into the Roman province, creating chaos and
disorder. They also took advantage of the fact that the Roman Empire had entered anarchy after
the death of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180), from the time of his son Commodus (161-
192), the one whom the scholar Edward Gibbon will consider as the first responsible for the
decline of the Roman Empire. From this perspective, Dio Cassius affirmed that this emperor
transformed the Roman state "from a kingdom of gold, into one of iron and rust 3." During his
reign, the Civil War broke out in Britain, when the Roman legions, after restoring the power of
Rome north of Hadrian's wall, rebelled against the governor's harsh discipline, but the rebellion
eventually broke out from within.
These events raise serious problems for Rome which will ultimately lead to the
definitive loss of Britain. The province needed the permanent presence of three legions to be
successfully defended, but the presence of these legions here was the perfect opportunity for
rebellion, new emperors and civil wars, as history will show.
The assassination of Commodus in 192 generated a series of rebellions of the legions
that led to the start of a new civil war. After a brief reign of Pertinax, several rivals disputed their
claims to the throne, including Septimius Severus, Clodius Albinus, the governor of Britain, and
Pescennius Niger. The latter was eliminated by Septimius Severus, who was now turning against
Albinus, the one who crossed the English Channel at the head of his legions, leaving Britain
vulnerable to the Scots and the pits. The battle took place near Lugdunum, and the victory
belonged Septimius Severus, who became the only emperor.
During the absence of the Roman legions on the island, Britain was subjected to rape
and massacre by the Irish and Caledonian robbers, which led to the establishment of general
chaos.
The new governor desperately asked for military help. Septimius Severus arrived at
the head of 20,000 legionnaires, passed over Hadrian's wall, deep into the enemy territory, but

3
Cassius Dio, Roman History, published in vol. IX of the Loeb Classical Library, edition 1997, p. 72
because of the unpopularity of the land, the Romans failed to meet the enemy army on the
battlefield. Thus, much of Britain's territory was recaptured and fortified4.
In order to prevent further rebellions on the island, Severus ordered the territorial
reorganization of the province in Upper Britain and Lower Britain, diminishing for this purpose
the power of the governors.
Between 286-296, took place the revolt of Carausius, the commander of the British
fleet, against King Maximian, thus creating its own empire. After 10 years of independence, his
rebellion was ended by Constantius Chlor, the father of Constantine the Great.
We can easily see how Britain is becoming a particularly fertile land for the rebels
and usurpers. St. Gildas rightly states that "Britain is a fertile land of tyrants" 5.
Diocletian's reign (284-305) was beneficial for the survival of the declining Roman
Empire which was in danger of disintegration. The division of rule with Maximian and, later, the
establishment of the tetrarchic system made it easier to govern the vast Roman territory, but, as
we shall see, the tetrarchy will prove its efficiency only during Diocletians lifetime. The system
will save the empire for the time being but, finally it will lead to civil wars and the definitive
division of the Roman Empire.
Although Diocletian was a remarkable leader who initiated reforms that led to the
restoration of the power of the Roman Empire, it will be best known for the last great persecution
of Christians in the empire. In the first part of his reign, Diocletian did not resist the Christians,
and their manifestations were unrestrained. Historians place the beginning of the persecution on
the account of Galerius, the Caesar of the East, who instigated the emperor by burning the
imperial palace, blaming Christians for this act.
In the year 303 Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius and Constantius Chlor issued a series
of edicts which prohibited Christianity and forced all citizens to make sacrifices in honor of the
Roman gods. The persecutions varied in intensity from one province to another, being much
more frequent in the East where Diocletian and Galeriu ruled, rarer in the west and almost non-
existent in Gaul and Britain, the provinces under the direct control of Constantius, who showed

4
Bede’s Ecclesial History of the English People, translated by Thomas Miller, Old English Series, Cambridge,
Ontario, 1999, p. 17
5
Gildas, De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, translated by J. A. Giles, Publication Medieval Latin Series,
Cambridge, Ontario, 2000, p. 7
himself From the beginning, they were reluctant towards these religious policies, either out of
sympathy with Christians or adopting a policy opposed to the Diocletian.

In Britain, the only mention we have of these persecutions comes from the martyrdom
of St. Alban, along with his companions. Saint Gildas briefly describes the life of the first British
Christian martyr, and the Venerable Bede, a century later, takes the information and enriches it
with numerous hagiographic elements.
Saint Alban, a pagan of British origin, hid in his house a certain Christian denounced
and persecuted by the Roman authorities. In order to save his life, Alban dressed his Christian
clothes and appeared in front of the persecutors, sacrificing his life for the sake of his neighbor.
Throughout his journey to the place of execution, many miracles are described to us which were
performed through the saint, dividing the waters of a river, like Moses, so that he could cross the
other side, while his horse, astonished by those when he did, he refused to carry out the sentence
and he too died as a martyr for faith in Christ6.
His cult has been widespread in England since the 3rd - 4th centuries and it is
therefore very difficult for us to accurately estimate the date of his martyrdom. According to both
Gildas and Venerable Beda, his martyrdom takes place during the persecution of Diocletian, but
there is not enough evidence to demonstrate such violent opposition to Christians in Britain at
this time. The Anglo-Saxon chronicle dates to his death in 283 7, while other historians such as
John Morris place this event either during the reign of Septimius Severus who resided in Britain
between 208 and 211, or during the reigns of Decius or Valerian, in the opinion of Charles
Thomas.
Any of the assumptions that date St. Alban's death to other emperors than Diocletian
is more plausible, because Diocletian actually ruled in the East, having Caesar who was, in fact,
the most staunch opponent of Christianity, while in West was August Maximian, and Caesar
Constantius Chlor, the governor of Gaul and Britain. Constantius's predisposition toward
Christians was well known in the empire, an attitude denounced by Diocletian's Gallery, and an
alleged persecution of Christians in the territories ruled by him would have been impossible
under these conditions. His son, Constantine the Great, was perfectly entitled to continue his
father's favorable policy toward Christians and to tilt the balance in favor of the Church.
6
Gildas, De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, p. 9-10
7
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, în Project Guttenberg, translated by James Ingram, London, september, 1996, p. 15
 Roman Britain has benefited greatly from the government of Constantius Chlor. In
the year 293, shortly after Maximian's Caesar was made by Diocletian, Constantius took charge
of Carausius's revolt, which declared himself emperor, occupying Britain and northern Gaul.
After close fighting, Carausius' forces were defeated in Gaul, near the city of Bononia 8.
Carausius was assassinated by Alectus, who took command of the two provinces, while at the
same time aligning with the Franks who caused severe problems on the Rhine border. For three
years Alectus led Britain, taking advantage of Constantius' campaign on the German border
against the Franks and the Germans. After intense efforts, the Franks were neutralized, and
Constantius was now free to deal with the British revolt. He crossed the English Channel,
defeated the usurper in battle, occupied London and massacred the French mercenaries who, left
without a lender, plundered the province9.
Since Britain was proving to be an extremely unstable province and a particularly
fertile land for rebels and usurpers, Constantius, like Septimius Severus before him, felt the need
to reorganize the territories and break up the big provinces into smaller provinces to limit them.
power of local governors. At the same time, he allocated the necessary funds to strengthen and
strengthen Hadrian's wall, as well as the adjacent forts, after which he returned to the Rhine
border where he successfully resisted the French invasions.
In the year 303 Constantius was seen before the edicts of Diocletian and Galeriu
directed against the Christians. The campaign of persecution of Christians was the most avidly
supported by the Gallery, seeking in this way to grow in the eyes of Diocletian who was
becoming older and sicker, being at the same time the largest beneficiary of the persecution of
the Church. He was also the one who denounced Constantius to the Diocletian for his favorable
attitude towards Christians10. Indeed, Constantius was the one who acted least against the Church
among all the other tetrarchs. These actions of Constantius Chlor come to show once again the
impossibility of the martyrdom of Saint Alban during his reign.
As Diocletian became more and more inefficient due to poor health, Galerius was to
assume the power conferred on Constantius by the tetrahedral system11. Initially, the arrangement
of the tetrarchy agreed that after the withdrawal of Diocletian and Maximian, Constantius and

8
Potter David Stone, The Roman Emipre at Bay AD 180-395, Routledge, 2004, p. 288
9
Southern Pat, The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001, p. 150
10
Potter David Stone, The Roman Emipre at Bay AD 180-395 p. 338
11
Potter David Stone, The Roman Emipre ai BayAD 180-395. p. 344
Galerius should be raised to the rank of Augustus, and Constantine, the son of Constantius and
Maxentius, the son of Maximian be advanced to the dignity of Caesar. Galerius succeeded in
convincing Diocletian, who in turn persuaded Maximian, to elect Severus and Maximin Daia as
Caesars12. These intrigues were directed against Constantius, whose health was causing him
serious problems and it was not difficult to predict that his reign as August would not last long.
In order to ensure Constantius's good behavior, Galeriu kept Constantine at his court, many
would say hostage, under the pretext of ensuring a good education for the illustrious young man.
Noticing the danger his son was exposed to, Constantius asked Galeriu to send
Constantin to help him in his campaigns in Britain, motivating the pretext of his poor health.
Galerius was reluctant to express his favorable decision, which caused Constantine to leave the
imperial city without final approval.
Constantine reunited with his father in northern Gaul, and they set off together to
Britain where they camped at York (Eboracum) before crossing Hadrian's Wall and carrying out
a successful punitive campaign against the pals. Shortly after returning to York, Constantius
died, not before declaring his son August. Constantine also enjoyed the support of Crocus, the
king of the Germans, who was at the time in the service of the late emperor. Legions loyal to his
father's memory hailed Emperor Constantine, and Britain and Gaul submitted to his authority13.
Constantius proved to be a capable emperor, recognized for his goodness and justice.
A Roman of Dacian origins, from a modest family from Moesia, he managed to rise to the
highest dignity of the Roman Empire. He fiercely defended the Roman frontiers, eliminated the
rebels and brought stability in the provinces he was leading, especially in Britain, which he
strengthened by rebuilding Hadrian's wall and carrying out a successful military campaign
against the pits.
Although he did not openly oppose the edicts that sought to eradicate Christianity,
Constantius made sure that they were not put into practice in his territories, protecting Christians
from persecution.
His son, Constantine, now declared emperor at York, was not in a stable situation. His
proclamation put him in open conflict with the other tetrarchs, and at the German border the
French reopened hostilities finding out about Constantius's death. After a brief stay in Britain,

12
Southern Pat, The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, p. 152
13
Odahl Charles Matson, Constantine and the Christian Empire, Routledge, New York, 2004, p. 78-79
during which time he reorganized the province and strengthened it, Constantine crossed the
English Channel into Gaul, establishing his capital at Trier.
In 306 the hostilities were opened by Maxentius, Maximian's son, who declared
himself emperor. Caesar Severus failed in his attempt to defeat Maxentius, which gave the latter
the opportunity to strengthen his authority in Rome. Between Constantine and Maxentius formal
alliances were concluded through Maximian, who was forced to return to work because of his
son's revolt. Constantine avoided meddling directly between the conflict between Maxentius and
Galerius, preferring to deal with the battles with the Franks from the borders of the empire, or to
retreat to Britain, the land that elevated him to the imperial throne.
The tetrarchic system became more and more inefficient and more complicated, with
the entry of Licinius, promoted by Diocletian during his brief return to imperial politics, directly
to the August rank of the West, demeaning Constantine to dignity. of Caesar. Obviously,
Constantine did not accept this advance, defying all these decisions. Maximian Daia, the Caesar
of Galerius was also unhappy with the way imperial policy was conducted, pursuing the August
title of the West himself. As a result, the imperial power was divided between Constantine,
Maxentius, Licinius, Galerius and Maximian Daia, with Maximian, who also returned to the
activity, and Diocletian for a short time.
In 310, Maximian rebelled against Constantine and declared himself emperor in Gaul,
but did not benefit from the support he expected and was eventually defeated by Constantine,
whose reputation grew from moment to moment, enjoying immense support from the legions and
the population. Destroyed, Maximian spent his days alone, hanging himself. Although the
relationship between Maximian and his son Maxentius was very cold, the two fighting for power,
Maxentius now felt entitled to avenge the death of his father and to continue the war against
Constantine. A year later, Galeriu dies, not before signing an edict that officially put an end to
the persecutions of Christians and that religious tolerance was accepted. It is particularly
interesting to change Galeriu's attitude towards Christians. As we have seen, Galerius in fact, not
Diocletian, was the most ardent persecutor of the Church, having at the same time the most to
gain from the persecution. Most likely, as the end drew near, Galeriu felt remorse and tried at the
last moment to correct what could be corrected. His death also meant the end of the last remnants
of what represented the tetrarchic system established by the Diocletian.
 Hostilities began to escalate between Constantine and Maxentius. Constantine's
power was concentrated in Gaul and Britain, while Maxentius ruled and fortified Italy. In order
to attract the Christian communities on his side, Maxentius supported the election of a new
bishop of Rome in the person of Eusebius 14. The climax occurred in October 312, when the
armies of Emperor Constantine, in numerical inferiority and having printed on the shields and
banners the Christian symbol ChiRo, defeated the troops of Maxentius at the Milvius Bridge.
Maxentius died drowned in the river's waters along with many of his soldiers. Constantine was
now the only emperor in the west. Together with Licinium, they issued the Edict of Tolerance in
Milan, in 313, which provides Christians with complete freedom to express their faith. The poles
of faith will reverse now, and the Roman Empire will gradually become Christian. Constantine's
alliance with Licinius will end when the two enter into the open conflict that will culminate in
the defeat of Licinius in 324. Again the Roman Empire will have a single ruler in Constantine's
person.
During the same period, the Church will undergo intense disturbances caused by the
appearance of the erroneous doctrine formulated by the priest Arie in Egypt. Arianism generated
numerous social and religious movements that raised serious problems in imperial politics,
which caused Constantine to convene the general synod of the Church in Nicaea in 325.
Arianism was vehemently fought at the synod, but the consequences caused by this doctrine will
continue. to crush the Church and the Christian east for centuries through many other heresies
that he gave birth directly or indirectly: pneumatomachism, Nestorianism, monophysitism,
monotelism, even iconoclasm. All these heresies affected the Eastern Roman Empire for five
centuries, but at the same time they led to the outline of the sublime dogmas of Orthodoxy. On
the outskirts of the known world, Britain was little affected by Arianism and enjoyed
ecclesiastical peace until the appearance of Pelagianism.
In 330, Constantine inaugurated a new imperial city on the banks of the Bosphorus,
which bore his name. Certainly the spectacular consequences of the inauguration of
Constantinople were not foreseen. It is Britain who raised Constantine to imperial dignity, and
Constantine is the one who gave the empire a new capital that will unite between its walls the
West and the East, becoming the center of the world, the cradle of Greek and Latin civilization,
the capital of Orthodoxy and the Eastern missionary. The founding of Constantinople will

14
Barnes Timothy D., Constantine and Eusebius, Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA, 1981, p. 38
forever change the face of Europe and will keep the mysteries of knowledge and teaching, enrich
them and transmit them further, when the dark times of barbarism will cover the ruins of Rome.
The flowers of Christianity and its fragrances will grow under the protection of Constantinople
throughout the east and especially in Egypt, cradle of pure monasticism, where many people
thirsty for the love of God and now deprived of the crown of bloody martyrs, will seek, like St.
Paul the Apostle, the wilderness. for the peace and contemplation offered. Like the natural laws
of nature, the pure condensation of authentic monasticism will rise in the clouds of faith and be
carried to the other end of the earth where the drops of God's love will fall on an island
untouched by Rome.
Constantine's genius made him one of the most illustrious Roman emperors. He has
forever changed the face of Europe, giving it a Christian identity. It was he who united Britain
and Constantinople within the same borders.
With one exception in the person of Theodosius the Great (379-395), the Roman
Empire was no longer blessed with genial emperors of Constantine's waist and soon fell prey to
anarchy, power struggles and barbarian invasions, while accentuating itself the division between
the rich east ruled by Constantinople and the west exposed to the invasions.
Gradually and surely, the romanity lost its original character in the west, being
impregnated from the inside more and more by the Germanic element. Received in the Roman
space, the barbarians infiltrated the army and in all spheres of society, causing a collapse of
Rome from the inside, while new invasions from outside pressed the Roman borders and borders.
All these successions of events will go along with a general moral decay of Rome in its last two
centuries of survival. Although Christianity has been around for three centuries and has survived
ruthless persecution, it will now experience a moral and spiritual decline that will prove fatal to
Rome. Also the North African provinces will go through unprecedented social and religious
disorder.
Infections from the wounds of Rome will lead to cancer, and the unbearable smell of
social, moral and religious decadence announces his slow and imminent death. His former glory
was now only a distant legend, the severe discipline of the legions that had conquered the world
was forgotten, and disorder and anarchy, rebellion and unjustified violence were now the new
values of which Western society was oriented. The west was becoming poorer and weaker, and
German barbarians who did not want to destroy Rome but wanted to be part of the Roman world,
became more and more daring. Like any other society that has abandoned its strict iron discipline
and given up its moral values, Rome will witness its own destruction.
Britain will see two other rebellions in the fourth century. The first was that of
Magnentius, usurper of the Roman Empire between 350-353. The reign of Constantine's sons
proved to be catastrophic for the Roman Empire. Satiated by the behavior of Emperor Constans,
the legionaries rebelled and proclaimed the commander of the imperial guard in August.
Constans was killed after a raid in the Pyrenees, and Magnentius became emperor in the West.
His rebellion did not last very long, in 353 he suffered a severe defeat in southern Gaul by
Emperor Constantius II, the son of Constantine the Great and Constans brother. After the battle
Magnentius committed suicide, and Constantius became the only emperor of the Roman Empire.
Fearing the emergence of new rebellions, Constantius ordered that investigations be conducted in
Britain to find and capture Magnenciiu's collaborators. The emperor's most infamous agent was
Paulus Catena, who tortured and killed innocent people in his investigations. His crimes were of
unabashed barbarism, and his methods of torture unimaginable. Soon, this whole search for
potential rebels turned into a ghost hunt, and Catena's bloody excesses scandalized the Britons
and strengthened their hatred of imperial rule.
Around 367-368, Britain witnessed a chain of events known in history as the "Great
Conspiracy."15. It all started when the Roman legions encamped on Hadrian's wall, concentrated
mainly in the Vindolanda fort, rebelled and allowed the Scots from Scotland to enter the Roman
province. At the same time, Scottish tribes from Hibernia (Ireland) swarmed on the Welsh coast
while the Saxons landed on the southern coast of Britain. It is impossible for these synchronized
invasions to have happened by chance, without being coordinated by a central control unit,
which is why this episode is a mysterious one and no historian can accurately rule on the
conspirators.
The general chaos caused by these brutal barbarian gangs has erupted in Britain. The
Romanian-British autochthonous population was passed through the sword, the women were
violated with bestiality, and the houses burned down. Many Roman citizens were taken into
captivity, especially in Hibernia, where there was an intense slave trade. In the inferno generated,
many of the Roman soldiers deserted and dedicated themselves to robbery and violence in order
to survive and only a small part of the Roman legions remained in positions in the forts. The able
15
Vezi Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History, English translation by John C. Rolfe, Harvard University Press ,
Cambridge Massachusetts, 1935
emperor Valentinian I (364-375), distracted by his campaign against the Germans, appears to be
powerless in the face of the British disaster. After a few hesitations, he sent the brilliant
commander Flavius Theodosius (or Theodosius the Elder), the father of the future emperor
Theodosius the Great, to Britain.
Together with his son, Theodosius I and the future usurper, Magnus Maximus,
Flavius Theodosius crossed the English Channel at the head of the Roman legions. By a clever
strategy, Theodosius the Elder managed to separate the barbarians from each other and
decisively defeat them. The Romanian deserters in the British legions were executed without
mercy, as were the traitors who were paid by the enemy. At the same time, the general ability
decisively defeated the forces of Valentinus, a Roman exile in Britain who joined the barbarian
cause16. The resounding success of his campaign propelled Teodosiu the Elder into the political
career, reaching the rank of chief adviser to Valentinian I, outlining the opportunity for his son to
become emperor.
Another British rebellion against Rome, much more severe this time, took place under
the command of Magnus Maximus, a tyrannical usurper who arrived on the island with
Theodosius the Elder and his son, the current emperor Theodosius the Great. Maximus is
described in the harshest terms by St. Gildas who accuses him of the lowest injustices, the breach
of oath, lie and tyranny, and the fact that he emptied Britain of the soldiers he drew after him in
the course of the rebellion, leaving her vulnerable to the attacks of herds and herds 17. This
eminently negative characterization of Maximus is unfair, however, as many of his
contemporaries praise his virtues and good governance. Let us not forget that St. Gildas was born
more than 120 years after the events in question. However Maximus would have portrayed, it is
certain that his revolt was catastrophic for Britain.
After being proclaimed emperor by his troops, Magnus Maximus crossed the English
Channel leaving Britain empty of troops and went to Gaul, where he defeated and killed the
Emperor Graitian. His next target was Italy, where the minor Valentinian II was emperor (375-
392). The initiative was abruptly stopped by Theodosius the Great who sent the imperial troops
against him. The negotiations between the two camps were mediated by the Holy Ambrose of

16
Hughes Ian, Imperial Brothers: Valentinian, Valens and the Disaster at Adrianople, Pen & Sword Military,
Barnsley, South Yorkshire, p. 85
17
Gildas, De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, p. 10-11
Milan, who will become the defender of Orthodoxy in the face of Arianism. For the moment,
Maximus has been recognized as August of the West.
His attitude towards faith is also very interesting; Maximus erecting himself in a
focused Christian, even began to persecute the followers of the heresies, which led to an open
conflict with St. Martin of Tours.
In 387 Magnus Maximus forced Valentinian II to leave Milan and take refuge in
Constantinople at the court of Theodosius. Constantinople's response was swift. Theodosius met
Maximus on the battlefield in Italy near Aquileea. Maximus managed to take refuge in the city,
but all his supporters and allies were eliminated by Theodosius the Great's troops. Soon, the
usurper surrendered, but did not benefit from leniency, and the Roman Senate issued on him the
decree Damnatio memoriae by which his memory was condemned, meaning that that person had
to be forgotten and removed from the collective memory18.
His death also represented the end of the direct presence of imperial authority in
northern Gaul and Britain. Despite the negative portrayal of St. Gildas, Magnus Maximus
became the hero of many British and Welsh legends, with great effect being that many royal
dynasties sought their offspring from him, especially to legitimize their right to rule and rule. to
mystify its origins. The Anglo-Saxon chronicle briefly mentions the unfolding of his rebellion
and ascension to the throne. Also, during his reign, the birth of Pelagiu's heresy is dated19.
Pelagianism is a doctrine formulated by the British monk Pelagiu who argued that
human nature was not altered by original sin, and man can be saved by his own forces, freely
choosing good or evil, without the need for divine intervention. The doctrine sought to diminish
the importance of divine grace and to value the free will of man 20. At a general glance, Pelagiu's
teachings deny the consequences of the original sin and reject the baptism of the children,
reasoning that they are not yet able to manifest their free will.
Pelagianism was fought at the Carthaginian council in 418 and at the third ecumenical
council at Ephesus in 431.
In Britain, Pelagianism led to the creation of many dissensions within the Church,
until the arrival of Saint German of Auxerre on the island around 430, shortly after the Roman

18
Fouracre Paul, The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 500-c. 700, Rosamond McKitterick, Cambridge, 2015,
p. 48
19
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in Project Guttenberg, translated by James Ingram, London, september, 1996, p. 16
20
Fericitul Augustin a făcut el însuşi parte din secta maniheiană in tinereţile sale, anterior convertirii la creştinism
withdrawal. Thanks to the sanctity of his life and superior rhetoric, Saint Gherman managed to
return the British Church from the Pelagian heresy. Particularly spectacular and interesting is the
military activity of Saint Gherman in Britain, an episode on which we will return.
As we have seen, following the rebellion of Magnus Maximus, Roman Britain was
left without legions and defenseless, exposed to the attacks of the Scots and the pits, who took
advantage of this opportunity without hesitation and invaded the province.
Saint Gildas, in his work De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae (About the ruin and
conquest of Britain) describes in detail this troubled period. The British, frightened by the bloody
attacks of the Scots and the peasants, sent ambassadors to Rome, requesting military assistance
with the promise of their submission to imperial authority. Overlooking their many rebellions
and injustices, the Romans sent an imperial legion in their support that massacred any barbarous
opposition in Britain. The British, humbled by their cowardice, were helped by the Romans to
restore Hadrian's wall and strengthen it with their own soldiers, but the British proved incapable
of defending with their own forces.
Shortly after the Romans left Britain, hostilities resumed and the land was flooded by
invaders thirsty for blood and plunder. Again the British sent ambassadors dressed in sackcloth,
with ashes scattered over their heads, begging for new military assistance. The Romanians,
moved by human compassion in telling the horrors described, sent cavalry detachments and a
naval fleet that mercilessly dispossessed the invaders, slaughtered them and drove them beyond
the wall into the deserts of the mountains and beyond the sea. Prior to their departure, the
Romans warned the British that they would no longer intervene in such conflicts and would no
longer organize such laborious expeditions to fight against bands of undisciplined barbarians
themselves, if they were more courageous and more dedicated to the war, he could easily defeat
them and defend their lives and their freedom, their families and their property in front of
invaders much weaker than them. The fortifications were strengthened and the British were
taught how to defend themselves, but shortly after the Romans left, the Scots and the Spartans
intervened once again, encouraged by the fact that the British were left alone. The British
defenders were pulled from Hadrian's wall by the invaders' weapons and killed instantly.
Panicked, they abandoned the protection of the wall and fled desperately into the open field,
where they were slaughtered, being unable to defend themselves. In the chaos generated, the
British turned against each other and killed each other in the desperate fight for survival.
 Foreign calamities were added to domestic ones, and the whole country was drained
of supplies and resources, and the struggle for survival became savage and bloody. For the third
time, the British ambassadors arrived in Rome and appeared before the consul Aetius begging
for help: "The barbarians take us into the sea, and the sea throws us back into the hands of the
barbarians, so two kinds of death await us, we are either killed or drowned ” 21. These words will
be known as the British complaints. The Romans could not help them, and soon the British
began to wander through deserted places and forests, enduring hunger, which made many of
them surrender into the hands of the persecutors in order to survive, while others survived. they
hid through caves and mountains.
 For the first time, the desperate British organized themselves and managed to defeat
the Scots and the Sparrows for a while, but soon began to fight each other. At the same time,
British society fell completely, and people's morals reached the lowest levels, lying, crime,
uncontrolled sexuality, cunning and treachery were their primary characteristics. The kings were
chosen from among them, but soon they were killed precisely by the hands of those who chose
them. The cruelest was elected ruler and the ruler until another crueler than himself rose among
them. The clergy also indulged in all kinds of sins: sexual orgies, theft of wealth, mercantilism,
lying, aspects that led to total decadence.
Then the advisers, together with the tyrant King Vortigern, decided to invite the
Saxons to Britain to provide them with protection against the Caledonians and the Scots. Soon,
on the shores of the island three ships loaded with saxons arrived, led by the brothers Hengis and
Horsa. As long as they received supplies and wealth, the Saxons fought in favor of the British,
but secretly sent news in their country of Saxony and Jutland about the wealth of Britain but also
about the weakness and cowardice of its inhabitants.
Soon, the Saxons became dissatisfied with the quantity of goods received and began
to demand more and more. When the British no longer had what to offer, then hell broke loose
on them. Men were massacred, women were forced, churches destroyed, and all the land was
filled with tears, violence and despair. The shores of Britain have been flooded with hordes of
Saxons, Englishmen and Jews. Many of the British hid in the mountains, others surrendered to
the Saxons.

21
Gildas, De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, p. 17
 In the desperation created, a brave man rose from their ranks, on his behalf
Ambrosius Aurelianus, a modest man, the last truly living Roman in Britain, whose parents of
noble origin were killed by the Saxons. At that time heavy fighting ensued, and the victories
alternated either on the part of the Saxons or the British, culminating with the Roman-British
victory at Mount Badon, in the forty-fourth year since the Saxons came to the island22.
The venerable Bede, the father of English history, largely takes the information
obtained from Gildas and, unlike his predecessor, names the persons involved for better
historical accuracy. Thus, Bede dates the withdrawal of Roman troops from Britain in 407,
during the Roman emperor Honorius, two years before Rome was robbed by Alaric, the king of
the Goths23.
Also mentioned in the Church History of the English people, the names of the Roman
emperors from Constantinople, Theodosius II and Marcian, as well as the Hunni kings Bleda and
Attila. The Roman Patrician Flavius Aetius, whose name is also mentioned by Gildas and the
one to whom the complaints of the British were addressed, is mistakenly assigned by Beda the
title of King of the Romans. Aetius was a Roman general in the final phase of the Western
Roman Empire under the incapable emperor Valentinian III. Often referred to as the last novel,
Flavius Aetius was for two decades the most influential man in the Roman West. Originally from
Durostorum, in the province of Moesia Inferior, with Scythian or Dacian roots, he started his
young military career in the Roman army. For several years he was held hostage at the court of
the Hun king, where he strengthened his military strength and learned the way of life of
barbarians. Becoming general of the Roman armies, Flavius Aetius waged successful campaigns
against the Visigoths led by the Arian king Theodoric I. The French hordes were repulsed in
Gaul under his command and pushed beyond the Rhine, and the Burgundian tribe was forced to
conclude peace with Romans. But his greatest achievement was the defeat of the Huns led by the
brilliant king Attila in 451 in the battle of the Catalonian Plains of Gaul, seen as one of the
greatest battles ever fought by the Roman army and, at the same time, the last episode of glory of
Rome. Defeated, Attila returned to Pannonia, but returned the following year, when he crossed
the Alps to Italy, plundering and terrorizing the northern provinces, completely destroying
Aquileea, the magnificent Roman city that will never recover from this disaster. In this context,
the legendary meeting between Attlia and Pope Leo I the Great will take place, after which the
22
Gildas, De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, p. 11-19
23
Bede, Ecclesial History of the English People, p. 21
Hun king suddenly withdrew from the Roman Empire, never to return. The content of the
discussion between the two is not known, which has given rise to many interpretations and has
given birth to many legends.
Another interesting episode of this troubled period through which Britain passed in
the fifth century is given by the visit of Saint Gherman from Auxerre to the island, in his mission
to eradicate Pelagianism, the effects of which we have observed previously. In the hagiographic
description of his life, Saint Gherman bishop of Auxerre and former Roman general withdrawn
from his activity will reactivate his military knowledge, leading the British to victory against the
Knights and Scots in the mountains of North Wales.

Anglo-Saxon Britain

Thus, we are witnessing the end of Roman rule in both Britain and the rest of Western
Europe. The death of imperial Rome gives birth to a new Europe and a new cultural and spiritual
identity, but this birth will be extremely painful and violent. The chaos that Britain is
experiencing is unprecedented in its history and will last for many years until the order is
harmoniously established through a new revitalization of Christian spirituality, which will make
the British islands at the end of the world then, a fruitful land of deified people, always thirsting
for the knowledge of the truth and the union with Christ. This period will bear the name of the
epoch of the saints, noting through the explosion of Christian monastic spirituality throughout
the Celtic and Anglo-Saxon space. The beginning of this flourishing period in the history of
Christianity will be due to a man destined to forever change the face of the British Isles.
Witnessing the chaos and instability in Britain will be a 16-year-old. His name was
Patrick and he was from a Christian family, his father a deacon, and his grandfather a priest.
During a raid, Patrick was kidnapped by Irish pirates and taken to Ireland as a slave, where he
was forced to shepherd the sheep. Here he found a world totally foreign to the Roman one with
which he was educated, Irish society being in the fifth century still in the Iron Age. Under these
conditions, Patrik found refuge in Christianity, praying constantly and succeeding in giving a
new meaning to his life full of difficulties24.

24
St. Patrick, The Confessions of St. Patrick, Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, Calvin College,
2010, p. 4-6
 After 6 years he managed to flee Ireland and return to Britain, but here he was
shocked to see how much the world he had known had changed: foreign invaders everywhere,
cities destroyed and depopulated, Christianity exterminated and paganism restored. After
spending some time in France where he deepened his theological knowledge, he went precisely
to the country that captured him and sent him into slavery. Here, in Ireland, he aimed directly at
the center of royal power.
The political center of Ireland was Mount Tara, where their old capital was also
located. Probably this place became holy even before the arrival of the Celts on the island. The
researchers assume that the first sacred sites in Tara were built by the same people from the
Neolithic era who also erected the Newgrange, Dorth and Knowth gorge. The main symbol of
the Tara was the Stone of Destiny, situated on the top of a hill, considered as having magical
properties that allowed the King of Ireland to be chosen correctly25.
Saint Patrik was a practical man, so he went straight to the center of pagan Celtic
society. Uisnig Hill, located a few miles southwest of Tara Hill, was the most important Celtic
religious center, traditionally associated with fire. According to legend, the first sacred fire was
lit in Ireland on the hill of Uisnig by the first druid, by his name Mide. The fire burned
incessantly for six years. The main symbol from Uisnig was a five-cornered stone, called the
"Stone of division" or "the navel of the earth". The five corners of the stone symbolized the five
portions of Ireland or the five rooms in the royal palace of the Country. Popular gatherings were
held around the stone and advice was given. The most important annual holiday took place on
May 1st and was celebrated both in Uisnig and in the Country. During the holiday, the Druids lit
the sacred fire, which all the Irish carried in glass at their homes. The first fire that was lit was
the King's, at Tara and, under the threat of death, no one was allowed to light the fire before the
king. In violation of the ban, Saint Patrik lit a fire during Easter at Uisnig, which was blasphemy
in the eyes of the Irish. The Druids predicted to the king that if the fire was not extinguished, the
one who lit it would reign forever and ever. The fire was not extinguished and, according to
legend, Christianity has taken root in Ireland26.
Having succeeded in converting the king, Patrik converted with him all the people
who went to faith in Christ despite the vehement opposition of the Celtic Druids. From now on,

25
D. Gromov, Geografia Sacra, o enciclopedie a locurilor de putere, trad. de Mariana Vraciu, editura ARC,
Chisinau, 2008, p. 220-221
26
D. Gromov, Geografia Sacra, o enciclopedie a locurilor de putere, p. 223-226
Irish Christianity will take a spectacular turn, developing uniquely and separately from the rest of
Europe thanks to the island's isolation. Having strong monastic influences from Egypt on the
ancient maritime route founded by the Phoenicians, Celtic tradition Christianity will bring a
period of glory to the Church in the area. The number of monasteries began to grow
dramatically, spreading throughout the island and profoundly changing the Irish society it
brought from the Iron Age to an era of flourishing culture and profound theology. Ireland, like
Christian Egypt, had become a refuge for monks eager to meet with God who retreated into the
green wilderness of the island, later establishing new monasteries. In Celtic Christianity the
abbots had a much higher authority than that of the bishops, this situation lasting until the
establishment of the control of Rome and the papal seat on the island, which will lead to a
reversal of the poles of power in the Irish Church.
The transformation that Christianity has produced in Ireland is amazing. Irish society
was based on the caste system specific to the Druidic religion. There were no roads, cities or
technology. The wealth was not measured in gold or silver, but in the number of cattle held.
Since the island did not see the impact produced by the Roman world, the society remained back
and well anchored in the Iron Age.
St. Patrick's success was based on his ability to transform the elements of the Celtic
religion and give them a new Christian meaning. Thus the water of the fountains revered by the
Druids became the water of Christian baptism, and the pagan altars became Christian altars.
Along with the new spiritual message, Saint Patrick comes with a new social message and a new
way of life. Scalvia is strongly attacked by Christian teaching, and this has made people in the
lower social blankets find a very appealing message in the faith of the Church.
Another powerful effect that St. Patrick produced in Ireland was the introduction of
writing and reading. Patrick was aware that people can be helped much better when you teach
them and prepare them to handle and think for themselves than when you give them the
necessities of life.
The Roman empire never came to this island, but through Patrick came here
Romanity and everything related to it: literature, Greek philosophy, the arts and more. The
libraries inside the monasteries that have sprung up all over the island have become true centers
of culture and romance. This is where the fine art of copying manuscripts developed, with an
extremely complex and difficult technique. The manuscripts enriched with decorative elements
of amazing beauty have become true works of art and perfect tools for propagating culture and
civilization. The most well-known manuscript of this kind is the Gospel of Kells, known as
Columba's book, which contains the four Gospels. The illustrations in this book far exceed in
beauty and sublimity any other manuscripts of this kind, now the book becoming the most
valuable national treasure of Ireland. Later, the art of copying manuscripts will move to England
where it will spectacularly develop in the Lindisfarne monastery. The Lindisfarne Gospels will
surpass the Kells Gospel in the beauty of the decorations.
Along with the spiritual and cultural revolution, Ireland also witnessed the birth of a
technological revolution following the arrival of Saint Patrick on the island. In fifty years the
island society has changed profoundly. If before there were not even roads here, now, through
the monasteries, the technology has reached very advanced levels, exceeding that of Britain by
about 100 years. The stone constructions began to be used. The monasteries began to develop the
ingenious construction of water mills to provide the monks with permanent renewable energy.
The technological and social development produced by the monasteries has attracted large
communities of people around them. Everywhere a new monastery was set up, there was born a
new human settlement, often urban.
Due to Ireland's isolation from the rest of Europe, Christianity has developed here in
an original way, based primarily on the ascetic needs of the most devoted believers. As we have
seen before, ties with North Africa, especially Egypt, were particularly strong. Desert asceticism
resonated in the rocky islands and shores of Ireland and later Scotland. The sacred places
worshiped by the ancient Celtic Druids have been reinterpreted in the Christian sense and given a
new connotation. The springs were sanctified and received healing characteristics, soon
becoming points of attraction for pilgrims from all corners of the islands.
The peaks of the mountains became holy places for Christians, as we saw in Tara,
where St. Patrik chased the snakes from paganism. The caves have been transformed into cells
and churches for the monks in search of completeness and holiness. But most importantly, the
small rocky islands, about 6,000 in number, have become ideal places for asceticism. The
magnificent natural setting of an Edenic greenery, the tranquility disturbed only by the beat of
the waves, the blue and endless sea, the extremely rocky, rugged and inaccessible terrain, the
frequent rain and the company of seals and seabirds made the perfect conditions for the ascended
monks. We are witnessing an explosion of monasticism in these parts of the world, with nothing
worse than that of Egypt and Palestine. The saints filled the caves and small islands, and the
people strove to obtain words of use and comfort from them.
In search of the most secluded places, the Irish monks were the first people to settle in
the Orkney, Shetland and Faroe archipelagos, well ahead of the Vikings. Moreover, Irish monks
were the first to discover Iceland, settling here to practice asceticism in the calm of geysers,
glaciers, volcanoes and lakes and hot springs. The subsequent arrival of the Scandinavian pagans
on the island caused the monks to leave the country.
Around the great monasteries in Ireland true monastic communities were formed, and
besides these, real cities were born. For the Irish nobility it was a great pride to have among their
family a saint, or a known ascetic, and many times this kinship with the saints guaranteed the
ascension to political power. So much did the political sphere intersect with the monastic sphere
in Ireland that we rarely see warrior monks fighting on the battlefield for one reason or another.
St. Columba himself will take part in such a war. We can say that in Ireland the idea of a warrior
monk was first developed, well before the Crusaders. Later we will see how a warrior Anglo-
Saxon bishop, named Heahmund, will die in battle against the Vikings, fighting for King Alfred
the Great. It is not excluded that this Heahmund, who is revered as a saint in both the Western
and Eastern traditions, would have been a follower of the Irish Celtic tradition, which had not yet
completely disappeared in its time.
Of the thousands of Irish saints who rose in this golden age of Christianity, we
include the venerable saints Patrik and Columba, the saints Ninian, Fillan, Kentigern, Thaney,
Mungo, Saint Thancy, Kilian, Colonel and Totnan, Oran, Kenneth, Saint Ita, Drostan, the
Venerable Bede, Brendan the Navigator, Columbanus, Aidan, Adomnan, Cuthbert and many
others. Their lives deserve special attention and rigorous study for each individual, being true
models of holiness, human endurance, perfection and asceticism.
The last pagan king of Ireland was Diarmaid (545-565). According to Tara's legend,
Diarmaid performed the last marriage ritual with the land of Ireland, as required by the pagan
tradition. The story "How Tara was cursed" describes how the king, who was a ruthless and cruel
man, quarreled with Saint Ruadan. The Irish saints acted like the Celtic Druids, resolving
disputes with kings through anathematizing, as the Druids solved the problems through curses
and songs of blame. In 554, Saint Ruadan of Lothra cursed the great king to no longer reign in
the Tara, which happened. All the kings who ruled after Diarmaid resided in other places built in
a similar manner to the palace of Tara. Beginning with 565, one hundred years after the death of
Saint Patrik, the country was abandoned, and the pagan holidays here came to an end27. Through
a spiritual and social revolution, the Druids left the place of Christian priests and bishops, and
more than that, many of the ancient pagan servants became servants of the Christian altars.
Currently, an Orthodox mission led and organized by a Romanian monk, on his
behalf, Serafim Aldea, established on the Scottish island of Mull, in the vicinity of the island of
Iona from the Inner Hebrides, seeks to restore this holy monastic tradition by reviving the
worship of the Celtic holy saints. and by the reconstruction of an old church attributed to St.
Kilninian. After more than a millennium of absence, authentic Christian spirituality returns
slowly, timidly, but surely in this corner of heaven, once bathed by the uplifting energy of these
great saints of the midst of the wilderness.
Even though it is on the edge of the earth, Ireland soon became the center of the
Christian world and of romance, art and technology, prosperity and learning, while on the other
side of the Irish Sea, Britain was thrown into the horrors of war and passed through major
political and social changes.
Although the British were victorious in the battle of Mount Badon in the year 500
against the Saxons, this victory only stopped the advance of the invaders for the moment. The
British retreated from the Germans in Cornwall, Wales and the northwest. The effects can be
seen even today, the Welsh being the direct descendants of the old Roman-British.
Seven new Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were born in Britain: Northumbria, the strongest
Saxon kingdom in the north, Mercia, the largest kingdom in the center, East Anglia, Essex, Kent,
Sussex and Wessex in the east, south and southwest. .
After three centuries of presence on the island Christianity was again replaced by
paganism, the place of Christ being taken by Votan or Odin. The British long hated the Anglo-
Saxons for refusing any initiative to convert them to Christianity, referring to them as demons
and considering them worthy of hell's torment. The mission of the Anglo-Saxon crusade will be
for the Irish and for Rome.
Ireland has become spectacularly a prosperous land for hermits who seek the quiet of
the desert of the emerald land. Monastic influences so profound came here in two directions. The
first, from Egypt, followed the sea route inaugurated long before the earliest times of antiquity

27
D. Gromov, Geografia Sacra, o enciclopedie a locurilor de putere, p. 222-223
by the Phoenicians. This commercial sea route links Ireland and Britain to the Middle East
Cornwall peninsula. The route was also known and followed in the 5th and 6th centuries, as we
can see from the archaeological finds at Sutton Hoo where luxurious objects from the East were
found in a funeral ship. Along with the trade we have to deal with an intense flow of ideas. In
this way, the Egyptian monastic spirit entered Ireland.
The second path was inaugurated by the Holy Eastern Parents Ioan Cassian and
Dionisie Exigul. This revival of Christian spirituality has made Ireland an ascetic paradise and
holds the largest concentration of monasteries in the world.
Soon, the Christian spirituality developed here would extend beyond the borders of
the island and extend in two directions: the first direction was initiated by St. Columban, who
crossed the European continent and revitalized Western Christianity by establishing the
monasteries at Luxeuil in Burgundy, France. , St. Gallen of Switzerland and Bobbio of Italy.
Saint Columban brought to the continent a new penitentiary system and new ascetic monastic
rules, some of them quite severe, by which the monk was fully seeking union with Christ.
The second direction of expansion of Celtic spirituality will be inaugurated by Saint
Columba and will target closer lands, Britain and Scotland, whose destinies will be profoundly
changed. His life was written by Adomnan from the island of Iona. in this case, the author
perfectly combines the hagiographic elements with the historical accuracy.
Saint Columba was born in Ireland somewhere around 521. His family was of noble
origin, his great-grandfather occupying the throne of one of the Irish kingdoms. Although he
could very easily choose a military or political career, Saint Columba took the path of the
Church, desiring eternal life rather than the worldly power of the world. Entering monasticism,
he was placed under the obedience of Saint Finnan, one of Ireland's greatest ascetic saints. Later,
Saint Columba was ordained deacon and priest. The legend that St. Columba was involved in the
bloody battle of Cul Dreimhne regarding the disputing of a copy of a manuscript cannot be
verified with certainty. It is highly unlikely that Saint Columba would have come into open
conflict with Saint Finnan, his spiritual father, and even less so in a conflict that would later lead
to such bloodshed on the battlefield. His biographer, Adomnan, remembers nothing about this
episode, which certainly would have been a mark for the saint's life and for its further
development, nor about his alleged excommunication that led to the saint's leaving Ireland.
 In 563, along with 12 other disciples, St. Columba passed on the west coast of
Scotland. Contrary to what we expected the saint did not pass into the enemy territory, being
actually still in Ireland or, more precisely, still in the territory ruled by the Irish. In the 6th-7th
centuries, parts of the west coast of Scotland and the north-eastern territories of the Ulster region
of Ireland, on both sides of the Northern Channel, formed the Irish Gallic kingdom of Dal Riata.
This ancient heritage can be found today in Scotland, the Scottish territory owned by the Irish
kingdom today bears the name of Argyll, which translates into the Welsh countryside. The
activity of St. Columba here will have an extremely overwhelming importance both religious and
political and ethnic. Columba was the initiator of the conversion of the picts to Christianity, but
at the same time he was the one who generated the birth of a new people, the Scottish one. The
term Scots actually meant the Irish people, but gradually, through the activity of the Dal Riata,
the Scots will give the name of another country: Scotland (Eng. Scotland, which translates to the
country of Scots). The Picts will gradually lose their cultural and linguistic identity and become
assimilated to the Scots, giving birth in the 7th-8th centuries to a new people. The pits will easily
extinguish in the darkness of history shrouded in mystery and myth.
Saint Columba went to the capital of Dal Riatta, the ancient fort of Dunadd, where he
presented himself to King Conall Mac Comgaill, who gave him a small island on the edge of his
kingdom on which the saint could build the monastery to begin spiritual and missionary activity.
The original name of the island was Hy, but it was renamed Iouan (Iona) by the saint. Despite the
fact that the island of Iona was on the edge of the earth, soon, through the activity and sanctity of
Columba, it would become the center of Christianity in the British Isles and not only, its
reputation crossing all corners of Western Europe. A true nucleus of sublime monasticism,
authentic spirituality and perfect holiness was formed here. At the same time, the island of Iona
also acquired political importance as the place where the first royal anointing took place in the
British Isles. It was performed by Saint Columba on the king of Dal Riatei, Aidan mac Gabrain,
while prophesying the duration of his reign and the succession to the throne of his son, Eochald
Buide28.
His diplomatic qualities acquired through his noble education were extremely useful
during his visits to the lands of the pits. Saint Adamnan describes St. Columba's journey through
the mountainous areas of Scotland, adorning it with many accounts of the miracles the saint
28
Viaţa Sfântului Columba, scrisă de către Sfântul Adamnan, în Omul îmbrăţişăriii, Sfântul Columba al Ionei, viaţa,
minunile, prorociile, acatistul, paraclisul, editura Sophia, Bucureşti, 2013, p. 138-140
performed. We have to do here with the first historical mention of the Loch Ness monster. The
sea monster is said to have killed a painter in the waters of the Ness River, after which he
attacked a disciple of Saint Columba whom he sent in the middle of the water. At the sight of the
monster, Columba ordered him to stand and leave his apprentice unharmed. At the hearing of the
saint's words, the monster retreated into the depths of the water to the astonishment of the pagan
Druids29.
Another very interesting episode is found in St. Columba's dispute with the great
druid Broichan, who refused to release a woman he held as a slave. His refusal drew upon him a
ruthless disease that did not leave his body until he had restored freedom to the woman. Like St.
Patrick, before him, St. Columba was a strong opponent of slavery, gaining the sympathy,
respect, and adoration of the ordinary pictured people. Against the same druid Broichan, the saint
opposed his miracles when he wished to embark on a journey on the water after three days.
Briochan opposed, disturbing the sea and the wind with his charms, seeking to hinder and
humiliate the saint. Through his prayers Columba eased the storm, to the great amazement of the
people, and left without encountering any other difficulties on the part of the Druid. All of these
miracles performed by St. Columba deeply affected the Druidic religion and brought new
converts from the pits.
The final destination of Columba's journey was the royal citadel of the Inverness.
Frightened by the miracles performed by the saint on his way to the center of royalty in the north
of Hadrian's wall, the pagan king Bridei ordered the gates of the city to be closed at Columba's
arrival. Seeing this, Columba approached the gates, made the sign of the cross on them, knocked
and lightly placed his hand on the gate that opened itself with great power. Frightened, the king,
together with his servants, went out before the saint and received him with due honor. Although
the king of Bride remained firm in his paganism, he did not oppose the spread of Christianity in
his country, which gradually adopted a new faith, having Saint Columba as the great apostle and
illuminator.
Thanks to St. Columba, in the isolated Hebrides, west of the Scottish coast, a number
of monasteries were erected, which attracted numerous Jesuits and hermits in search of the desert
of the ocean, where they could devote themselves fully to deep prayer, union with Christ and the
contemplation of the divine.

29
Viaţa Sfântului Columba, p. 199-200
 Saint Columba would return to Ireland, his native land, for a short time, towards the
end of his life, or else the only time he had left Scotland since his arrival in these lands. During
this visit he founded the famous Ionian monastery Durrow. We are also known for a series of
letters authoring St. Columba and a number of hymns attributed to him30.
St. Columba's death occurred in 597 on the island of Iona due to natural causes. His
body found rest in the abbey he created. Following the Vikings' attacks on the monastery in 794,
its relics were taken by the monks who survived the attack and were divided into the territory of
Scotland and Ireland, becoming priceless relics of many Celtic monasteries.
The legacy that Saint Columba left behind was simply spectacular. Due to his
activity, the birth of the Scottish people was triggered, and the monastery he founded on the
island of Iona became an essential monastic center of Western Christianity. From here, the
beauty of Christian spirituality will extend to Britain, giving a new identity to this country still
well-grounded in the darkness of paganism and barbarism.
In the same year that St. Columba went to the Lord, on the southern shores of Britain,
in the Saxon kingdom Kent a new mission led by St. Augustine, the future archbishop of
Canterbury, appeared. It was sent by the ambitious Pope, Gregory I the Great, a powerful
supporter of ecclesiastical universalism.
St. Augustine met on the island of Thanet, in the south of the kingdom of Kent, with
King Aethelbert, whose queen, Bertha, the daughter of the Frankish king Charibert I, was already
a Christian. Aethelbert deliberately chose an island to meet Augustine because he feared the
powerful magic of Christians. For the ancient Celts and Anglo-Saxons the islands were sacred
spaces.
The mission was a real success, and the king was converted to Christianity. St.
Augustine was ordained archbishop of Canterbury, being considered the apostle of England. As
Venerable Bede showed in his ecclesiastical history, Augustine failed to bring the British Celtic
bishops under Rome's obedience, which most often led to a noticeable conflict between the
ecclesiastical, powerful and centralized authority of Rome, the heir of political imperialism. ,
now transposed into religious imperialism and the Celtic bishops, whether British, Welsh or
Irish. Eager for independence and proud of their spiritual inheritance left by geniuses such as

30
Viaţa Sfântului Columba, p. 199-208
Saint Patrick, Saint David or Saint Columba, the Celtic monks will stand against Roman
centralism and outline their own tradition that we will treat for a future work.
As the mission advanced deeper into the Saxon territory, this proved to be
increasingly difficult. The Saxons remained stubborn in their paganism, and this attitude was
largely due to the fact that the Christian Christian influence stopped short of the southern shores
of Britain. In Essex, King Soethbert, Aethelbert's nephew was converted to London, but shortly
after his death, his sons returned to paganism. Seeing their father during their lives receiving the
holy communion, they presented themselves to the bishop and asked them to give them also the
bread and wine their father ate. As they were not baptized, the bishop refused their request and
was consequently expelled from London31. In conclusion, the mission undertaken by Augustine
initially succeeded in converting only the kingdom of Kent.
In the north, other holy people turned their eyes to Britain. From the holy monastery
on the island of Iona, Christianity would descend to the south and pass into Britain. If during the
Roman domination of the island, the purpose of Hadrian's wall was to keep the civilized world
and its romances from spikes, now, spectacularly, the civilized world and Romanity passed
through the north wall through the pits and shells to illuminate and the civilization of Britain
encompassed by the darkness of barbarism and ignorance. The Venerable Beda is the one who
gives us valuable information related to this whole period, vital information, without which the
historical truth could not have been known in detail.
The kingdom closest to the Scottish borders was Northumbria which, at that time, at
the beginning of the 7th century consisted of two sub-kingdoms: Bernicia in the north and Deira
in the south. The king of Bernice, Aethelfirth, became king in 604 and the king of Deira, thus
uniting under his authority the two domains, becoming at the same time the most powerful leader
in Britain, Bretwalda. About 616 Aethelfirth was killed by King Raedwald of East England, and
his brother-in-law Edwin came to the throne of Northumbria. The sons of King Aethelfirth,
Oswald and Oswiu left Northumbria at the death of their father and found refuge in Dal Riata
where they converted to Christianity. Both were raised on the island of Iona and educated in the
spirit of St. Columba.
King Edwin of Northumbria was the first monarch of this kingdom to convert to
Christianity, but his example was not followed by the nobles or the people. After a relatively

31
Bede, Ecclesial History of the English People, p. 52-54
short but important reign, King Edwin was killed in the battle around 633 by a coalition of
British King Cadwallon ap Cadfan's and Penda King Mercy's armies. Later, King Edwin will be
canonized and revered as the martyr king of Northumbria.
Cadwallon, the king of the British Celts is vehemently challenged by the Venerable
Beda and assigned an extremely negative portrait. Although a Christian in faith, his violent and
bloody behavior created a reputation for him to bear. His victory with the king of Mercy now
made pagan Penda supreme king over the northern kingdom and the most powerful sovereign in
Britain32.
Oswald, son of Aethelfirth, understood that now was the perfect opportunity to take
action and returned to Northumbria from Scottish exile with his brother. In front of a small army
most likely made up of North Loyalist loyalists, as well as contingents of Scots and Scots,
Oswald defeated and killed Cadwallon on the battlefield. Before the battle, Oswald erected a
wooden cross before which he and his army worshiped 33. Saint Adamnan, in the Life of Saint
Columba, relates a vision of King Oswald before the battle, guaranteeing his victory by Saint
Columba.
Oswald's military success was decisive in his attempt to convert Northumbria.
According to Beda, the nobles and the common people went to mass Christianity. His victory
also allowed him to reunite the two sub-kingdoms under his scepter, becoming in turn the most
powerful king in Britain.
The foundation of the Lindisfarne monastery on the rocky east coast of Northumbria,
close to the kingdom's capital, Bamburgh, is also linked to Oswald's name. The founder of this
holy monastery was Bishop Aidan, the last great saint produced by the holy monastery Iona. In
many respects, Lindisfarne closely resembled that of Iona Island, the austere regime here and the
adverse weather were particularly pleasing to the asylum-loving monks of angel life. The
monastery on the island of Lindisfarne has become a center of Christianity as important as that of
the island of Iona.
King Oswald's reign was extremely spectacular, flourishing and important.
BedaVenerable refers to him with the title of Bretwalda, king over the kings of Britain. Oswald's
greatest opponent, however, remained the powerful Penda, the pagan king of Mercy. In 642,
Oswald advanced in Mercia at the head of his armies, but was defeated and killed on the
32
Bede, Ecclesial History of the English People, p. 69
33
Bede, Ecclesial History of the English People,, p. 72
battlefield. In this tragic way the reign of one of the greatest Anglo-Saxon kings, a holy king,
who converted a whole nation to Christianity, ended. An ascetic friend, guardian of the monks,
Irish in faith, Anglo-Saxon in blood, Oswald was of utmost importance for the spread of
Christianity in England. The establishment under his patronage of the Lindisfarne monastery led
to the creation of a spiritual center surpassed only by the one in Iona, Scotland. Oswald became a
standard of how a kingdom is ruled, which others were now obliged to follow in order to emulate
at least the success achieved by the great Anglo-Saxon king.
Oswald's successor to the throne was his brother, Oswiu, but he occupied only the
throne of Bernicia, fighting almost his entire reign to extend his authority over Deira. Oswald's
death, revered as a saint from the following years, produced a change of power poles in England.
Penda, the victorious king after his war with Northumbria, has now become Bretwalda, and the
leader of the northern kingdom has become his inferior.
Like his brother, Oswiu was raised in exile in the Scottish kingdom of Dal Riata,
where he embraced Christianity and built on the ascetic tradition of Iona. It is quite possible that
Oswiu had exercised his military talent in exile in the battles waged by King Dal Riata Eochald
Buide, the son of Aedan mac Gabrain, a close relative of Saint Columba.
On his ascension to the throne, Bernicia's situation was as difficult as possible, the
land being permanently harassed by the pagan kingdom of Mercia. King Penda, at the peak of
power, was Britain's most feared man. Oswiu spent much of his reign in his shadow. Deira, the
other kingdom that will make up Northumbria, was ruled by Oswine, a righteous and capable
king who came into conflict with Oswiu to maintain the independence of his kingdom. Beda the
Venerable recounts in detail how Oswiu treated Oswine. Entered into military conflict, the two
were close to meeting on the battlefield, but Oswine, seeing the numerical superiority of his
opponent, agreed with him to end the war and send his warriors home, leaving only one soldier
for himself. trustworthy. Oswine and his companion were hosted by Count Hunwald, his
subjects, but he, with Oswiu's support, killed King Oswine in the most detestable way. Contained
with remorse, Oswiu ordered the construction of a monastery on the spot where Oswine was
killed to raise daily prayers for both souls. Oswine was canonized and venerated as a martyr
immediately after his death. The sin committed by Oswiu will severely affect his reputation, but
will somewhat improve his relationship with Penda, which led to the marriage of Oswiu's
daughter to Peada, the son of the King of Mercy. Peada converted to Christianity on this
occasion.
According to Beda's History, in 655, Penda invaded Bernicia at the head of a
powerful army. Oswiu offered very favorable terms of peace for Mercia, but Penda, confident of
his success, refused. Desperately, Oswiu promised his daughter to devote himself to monasticism
and promised to build twelve new monasteries if God would guarantee his success. At the head
of a small army, Oswiu attacked Penda in the battle of Winwaed near Leeds. Although vastly
outnumbered, Oswiu was victorious and killed King Penda in battle34.
The battle of Winwaed is particularly important for Anglo-Saxon history, as it marks
the end of paganism in England. Penda had remained the only pagan king and stubbornly refused
to convert to Christianity, remaining true to the old barbaric values. Through the efforts of King
Oswiu, Peada, the son of Penda, was baptized by Finan, the successor of Saint Aidan of
Lindisfarne. Also, under the influence of the northern king, the kingdom of East Anglia
embraced the Christian faith. Along with religious importance, the battle of Winwaed had
significant political implications that led to the demise of the kingdom of Mercia and the
restoration of the power of Northumbria in England, which made King Oswiu the most dominant
figure in the entire island.
During his reign, in the year 664 an ecclesiastical event of essential importance for
the future of the English Church took place. Oswiu convened the Whitby Synod to discuss the
two Christian traditions in England: the Roman and the Irish. The Irish were reproached for
celebrating the Passover according to the Jewish tradition at a different date from the rest of the
Church and the different hairstyle of the Celtic monks from the Roman ones. In fact, the synod
was, in fact, seeking to extend Rome's centralizing authority over independent Irish bishops and
to bring the Celtic Church under unconditional obedience to the bishop of Rome. The synod
faced Colman, the bishop of Lindisfarne, the exponent of the Irish tradition, and Wilfrid, the
bishop of York, the representative of the Roman pontifical tradition.
For years, the two traditions have coexisted peacefully, with no good reason for a
conflict between the two, being here different liturgical customs and traditions, about non-unitary
attitudes about monasticism, about separate rules of penance and not about dogmatic
divergences, theological or canonical.

34
Bede, Ecclesial History of the English People, p. 107-108
 The decisions of the Withby council were in favor of the Roman tradition and the
bringing of the Church of Northumbria into the bosom of Rome. The synod also marked the
decline of the Irish Celtic tradition in Britain. Not having saints at the waist of Saint Columba of
Iona or Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne, Celtic Christianity came under the rigorous and rigid Roman
influence.
The Withby Synod inevitably led to the Romanization of the English Church, a fact
which history will demonstrate through the actions of the Papacy against England, the most
important being the financial support of Duke William of Normandy in his struggle to conquer
the English throne, in 1066 Also, Rome's actions were directed against English interests during
the reign of King John of the Country (1199-1216) when he offered England to the Papal See as
a sign of vassalage. The climax was reached in 1534, during the reign of King Henry VIII, when
he removed the English Church from the jurisdiction of Rome, proclaiming himself head of the
Church. The Romanization of the English Church eventually came to affect the interests of
Rome and the English people who loved freedom who did not endure the foreign interference in
its internal problems. Perhaps if the Roman West had not been so centralized and concentrated
around a single person, things would have been different for the benefit of Rome.
Withby's Synod ended an extremely interesting era in the history of Western
Christianity called the Saints' Age. The revitalization of British Christianity through Irish monks
and missions gave England both a spiritual and a cultural and social precedent unprecedented in
its history. Christianity was the main element that led to the unification of the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms and the formation of the English nation. The English people, no matter how much they
challenge this fact, owe much to Ireland for the support it provides to its formation. In our
opinion, the rejection of the Celtic tradition and the authentic Christian way of living inevitably
led to the demise of the English Church. After the failure at Withby, Bishop Colman retired to
the Lindisfarne monastery, as later, the Celtic monks headed to the island of Iona, whose
importance would gradually diminish and disappear into the realm of oblivion. The irresistible
attraction of the monks for a hermit life would disappear and saints from the waist of Columba or
Bishop Aidan would never rise in these lands except St. Cuthbert.
After the Synod at Withby, the English Church was organized by Theodore of Tarsus,
a person of holy life, from the Byzantine Empire, which demonstrates the strong connection that
was still maintained between Constantinople and Britain. During his childhood, Saint Theodore
witnessed the devastating wars between the Byzantine Empire led by Emperor Heraclius and the
Persian Sasanid Empire of Emperor Chosroe II. In the years 613-614, Antioch, Damascus and
Jerusalem fell into the hands of the Persians, after which the Sasanian forces devastated Tarsus.
Theodore could not have had in those extreme times more than 11-12 years, being familiar with
the Persian tradition and culture. Most likely, the foundation of theological and philosophical
study was formed at the exegetical school in Antioch. Also, Theodore was also familiar with the
Syrian tradition, learned during his travels in Edessa35.
Although Persian rule could hardly be tolerated, the subsequent conquest of Tarsus by
Muslims in 637 surely caused Saint Theodore to leave his hometown and the place that formed
it, so dear to his soul.
After spending time in Constantinople in the capital of the Roman Empire where he
acquired profound knowledge of astronomy, horoscope, Easter calculus, theology, philosophy,
history, medicine, law and rhetoric, Theodor went to Rome where he lived in the company of
monks. Eastern at the monastery of St. Anastasius36.
Subsequent to the Withby Synod, after which the Anglo-Saxon Church turned to
Rome, Theodore, now 66, was appointed archbishop in the vacant Canterbury. Saint Theodore
was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury in Rome on March 26, 668 and arrived in England
with his good friend, the abbot Adrian de Cartagina at the end of May 66937.
Immediately after his arrival on the island, Theodore organized a tour of the country
appointing bishops and reorganizing the Church from the foundations. In 673 he convened the
Hertford Synod to institute the new reforms on the correct calculation of the Passover, on
strengthening the authority of the hierarchs, stopping the phenomenon of traveling monks, rules
on marriage and consanguinity, as well as researching other current ecclesiastical topics.
In his action on the division of the diocese of Northumbria, Saint Theodore of
Tarshish entered into conflict with Wilfrid, the Archbishop of York, Colman de Lindisfarne's
staunch opponent of the Withby Synod. Following the struggle for power, Wilfrid was stepped
down by Theodore.

35
Michael Lapidge, Archbishop Theodore: Commemorative Studies on His Life and Influence, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 1995, p. 8-9
36
Michael Lapidge, Archbishop Theodore: Commemorative Studies on His Life and Influence, p. 17-22
37
Hugh Chisholm, ed. Archbishop Theodore in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edition, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1911, p. 26
 Saint Theodore, together with his close collaborator, Adrian, now the abbot of St.
Peter's Monastery in Canterbury, founded a school in Canterbury that aimed at educating clerics
and scholars in the classical Greek and Latin languages, which led to the establishment of the
golden age of Anglo-Saxon culture and education. Teodor de Tars is also responsible for
introducing the Eastern liturgical tradition in the West38.
Throughout his career in Britain, St. Theodore also convened synods at Hatfield in
680 and at Twyford in Northumbria in 684, reinforcing orthodoxy in the face of monotheistic
heresy39.
Saint Theodore died in the year 690 at the age of 88, after having been pastor of the
English Church for 22 years. He was canonized and is honored as a saint in both the Orthodox
Church and the Catholic, Anglican, Episcopal churches in the U.S. and the old oriental ones.
Theodore of Tarsus left behind a Church organized and developed on the foundations of the
Eastern tradition.
His activity and the ascension he had in the archbishopric of Canterbury is proof of
the international prestige enjoyed by the Byzantine Empire in the seventh century. Even though
it was going through heavy territorial losses caused by the Muslim invasion that ravaged Egypt,
Syria and Palestine and North Africa, which amounts to more than two thirds of the surface of
the Eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire was still able to reflect an influence.
overwhelming over the Christian world, standing in the guarantor of the right faith and in the
civilization of the barbaric world. Saint Theodore of Tarsus stands as a perfect example in this
regard.

One of the contemporaries of Saint Theodore of Tarsus was Saint Cuthbert, one of the
most beloved Anglo-Saxon saints and the Northumbria Potector.
St. Cuthbert's origin seems to have been noble. She was born in a particularly violent
period, when Christianity still prevailed over Northumbria's paganism. Most likely, Saint
Cuthbert was born during the reign of the first Christian king of Northumbria, Edwin, around
630.

38
Bernhard Bischoff, Michael Lapidge, Biblical Commentaries from the Canterbury School of Theodore and
Hadrian, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 1994, p. 172
39
Jeremy Collier, Francis Foster Barham, An Ecclesial History of Great Britain (Volume 1), ed. William Straker,
London, United Kingdom, 1840, p. 250
 The tensions between Irish and Roman tradition after the Withby Synod in 664 will
represent the events that marked the most profound life of the saint. Archbishop Wilfrid of York
contributed greatly to escalating tensions. Cuthbert, himself educated in the spirit of the Celtic
tradition, will follow his mentor, Saint Eata, bishop of Hexam and Lindisfarne and accept the
Roman tradition40.
His life was very different from Wilfrid's. Cuthbert loved the austerity and hermit life
spent in the green desert of Britain. His fame grew rapidly and people from all over the world
sought words of comfort from him. When Alchfrith, King Deira, part of Northumbria,
established the monastery at Ripon, Cuthbert was appointed her abbot.
Cuthbert harmoniously combined prayer with mercy, successfully fulfilling the
spiritual needs of believers. Due to his fame, St. Cuthbert gained the nickname "Britain's
Wonders."
Wanting a hermit's life above all else, Saint Cuthbert retreated to a small island near
Lindisfarne where he locked himself in a cave where he received only a few visitors, devoting
himself entirely to divine contemplation. His Jesuit life was interrupted in 684, when he was
elected to the Hexham Episcopal seat, following the Twyford Synod 41. Initially, the saint was
reluctant to leave his hermit life and contemplative peace, but he was convinced by the visit of
King Ecgfrith of Northumbria, accompanied by many believers. He refused to take over the
episcopal seat of Hexam and insisted on occupying the one at Lindisfarne so that he could be
close to his retired place. St. Cuthbert was ordained at York by St. Theodore of Tarsus, along
with six other bishops. After the consecration, Saint Cuthbert returned to his small island, where
he continued his contemplative life, interweaving the episcopal duties with the hermit order. He
died in 687 after a serious illness42.
His original grave was at Lindisfarne, but due to frequent attacks by the Vikings, his
earthly remains will be re-buried in Durham Cathedral. His relics were among the few who
survived the destruction of the relics and the abolition of the monasteries during the reign of
King Hanric VIII.

40
C. F. Battiscombe (ed.) The Relics of Saint Cuthbert, Oxford University Press, Oxfosrd, United Kingdom, 1956,
p. 122-129
41
Sylvanus Urban, The Gentleman’s Magazine, John Bowyer Nichols and Son, London, 1852, p. 504
42
David Hugh Farmer, The Oxford Dictionary of Saints, (4Th Edition), Oxford university Press, Oxford, 1997, p. 120
 The legacy that St. Cuthbert left behind is overwhelming for the English people.
Numerous miracles are attributed to the saint who was declared the protector of Northumbria.
The spiritual, cultural and literary revival of Northumbria continued after the death of
Saint Cuthbert, throughout the eighth century. The period of the eighth century is also known as
the Northumbrian revival, culminating in an unprecedented revitalization of education and the
arts. Also during this period, the Venerable Beda, the undisputed historian of the early Middle
Ages in Anglo-Saxon Britain, is considered to be the most erudite and intelligent man of his
time.
The famous Lindisfarne Gospel, whose beauty of decorations surpasses those of the
Gospel of Kells, from the holy monastery on the island of Iona.
Another emblematic figure of the Anglo-Saxon Church is Saint Willibald, considered
one of the most traveled Anglo-Saxons of his time. Willibald plays a very important role in our
work because he visited Byzantium in the eighth century, where he stayed for two years.
Saint Willibald was born in Wessex around 700, from parents of noble origin. His
father was generically called Richard the Pilgrim, Richard de Wessex or simply King Richard,
his real name being unknown, and he was a nobleman of some importance in Devonshire. His
mother was Saint Wuna de Wessex, probably the sister of Saint Boniface, according to scholar
Jacob Bamberg. His brother, Saint Winibald, became the abbot of the German monastery in
Heidenheim am Hahnenkamm, and his sister, Saint Walburga was noted for his missionary
activity in the Frankish empire43.
At the age of three Willibald was suffering from a violent illness and was struggling
between two worlds. His father promised God that if his son survived, he would worship him in
the Church. Willibald lived and was entrusted to the Benedictine monastery at Waldheim at the
age of 5. Here Willibald became acquainted with the Celtic and Anglo-Saxon traditions of
itinerant monasticism44. In the personality of St. Willibald, the Benedictine tradition and the Irish
tradition combine perfectly.
In 721 Willibald set out on a pilgrimage to Rome with his brother and father. The first
stop on the road was made in Rouen where they visited the holy altars in the area, spending their
time in prayer. Eventually they arrived in Lucca, a city in northern Italy. Here, Willibald's father,

43
Matthew Bunson, Margaret Bunson and Stephen Bunson, Willibald (c. 700-786), Our Sunday Encyclopedia of
Saints, Our Sunday Vsitor, Inc., Huntington, Indiana, 2003
44
Konstantin Maier, Willibald, Religion Past and Present, Brill Online, 2018
Richard Pilgrim became seriously ill and died, being buried at the monastery founded here by the
Irish monk Fridianus. Various wonders happened at his tomb which led to the development of a
true cult. The people of Lucca were the ones who gave him the name of Richard and beautified
the history of his life, giving him the title of English prince. An important aspect to think about is
that the King of the Wessex at this time was Ine, who came to the throne in 688 and died
somewhere after 726. The venerable Beda states that Ine abdicated after 37 years of reign ,
somewhere around 725-726, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle mentions that he gave up the throne
in the years 726-728, after which he traveled to Rome where he also died 45. Richard may even be
King Ine of the Wessex if we consider the similarities in the lives of the two characters. And the
two chronologies are close together which may indicate an association between the two names.
St. Richard is venerated as a saint in the Orthodox Church and in the Roman Church and is
celebrated on February 7.
After burying their father, Saints Willibald and Winibald continued their journey
through Italy until they reached Rome. In the ancient city, the two brothers increased in devotion
and discipline until they became plagued by the plague. The plague epidemics of the eighth
century are the last manifestations of the plague of Justinian in the year 540 which has caused
enormous havoc throughout the known world.
Miraculously they were saved from the clutches of death, just like the Emperor
Justinian. Winibald continued to stay in Rome after this dramatic episode, and Willibald headed
to Byzantium, stopping in Sicily, Greece and Asia Minor.
During the visit of Saint Willibald, the Byzantine Empire had barely survived the
huge Arab siege over Constantinople from 717-718. The hero of the siege, Emperor Leon III will
start the controversy of the iconoclasm that will manifest itself violently on several occasions and
will lead to the removal of Byzantium from Rome and the West. But the aversion to the icons
will only manifest itself in the high political ranks and part of the army. Beyond the walls of
Constantinople the iconoclasm did not take root. The greatest defenders of the icons were the
monks who kept the legacy of the previous ecumenical councils intact. The ordinary people
largely ignored imperial politics and continued to honor the icons as they were tradition.
Through these social and religious turmoil the Byzantine society was passing when Willibald
broke his threshold.
45
E. B. Pryde, D. E. Greenway, S. Porter, I. Roy (editors), Handbook of British Chronology, Royal Historical
Society, 3rd Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1986, p. 22
 In Asia Minor Willibald and his companions first visited the city of Ephesus and the
tomb of St. John the Evangelist, and then came to Patra, Lycia, where they spent the winter.
Further on they crossed the Taurus Mountains where they were dying of hunger and thirst in an
attempt to cross the other side.
From Asia Little Willibald went to the island of Cyprus and then came to Syria where
he was received in audience with a Greek bishop and visited a monastery dedicated to Saint John
the Baptist.
With seven companions, Willibald arrived in the Holy Land, visiting Nazareth and
Bethlehem, and then he went to Egypt. From Egypt he returned to Nazareth, then to Cana,
Capernaum, and Jerusalem. From Jerusalem he continued his journey through Bethlehem where
he visited the Church of the Nativity, then the city of Tecua, the Great Lavra of Saint Sava, the
monastery that was built on the place where the Ethiopian eunuch was baptized by the holy
Apostle Philip, the cities of Gaza, Hebron, Lydda, the city of the holy martyr Gheorghe, Tyrul,
Sidon, Sebastia, Samaria, Ptolemais and again Tyrul.
After some time in the city of Tyr, Willibald went to Constantinople. In the imperial
city the saint resided for two years between 727 and 729, where he was provided with an annex
of the great church of the Holy Apostles, the imperial necropolis. He also spent some time in the
city of Niceea, where he studied the documents of the first ecumenical council.
After the two years in which the saint enriched by the presence of the mysteries of
Christian spirituality in the medieval Roman empire, Willibald went to Sicily, then to Naples,
regions still under Constantinople. After a while, Willibald joined the important monastic
community of Monte Cassino where he described his fascinating travels. Ten years he spent the
saint in the center of Italian spirituality, occupying different ecclesial functions. In 738, Saint
Boniface asked Pope Gregory III to send Willibald to Germany for help. In Germany, Willibald
was appointed bishop and ruled the Franconia region for four decades. It passed to the eternal
ones somewhere around the year 787, the year in which the iconoclasm in the first phase would
be defeated. St. Willibald's travels inspired the imagination of the West for years and projected a
mysterious image of the east in the West. Saint Willibald unites in his person two fundamental
spiritual traditions of Christianity, the Irish and the Eastern. Two distant worlds have now been
reunited through the journeys of this tireless saint. That is why its importance is unquestionable
for the present research.
 However, the monastic spirituality of the British Isles is in an irreversible decline, at
least to this day. Cuthbert is perhaps the last great English monk. This decline is primarily due to
the Withby Synod and its aftermath, and, as with any decline, disaster would be imminent.
In the year 792, wild attacks of a foreign, pagan, frightening and terrible people were
attacked on the holy monastery of Lindisfarne. The monastery was destroyed and plundered by
the precious works of art and the objects of worship, and the monks were martyred.
The same disaster happened on the holy island of Iona two years later. The whole
monastery was gathered on the beach of the island and was killed without any restraint. The
place where this massacre took place will henceforth corrupt the name of the Gulf of Martyrs.
The sanctity of the Irish Christian tradition has ended in a brutal, bloody and martyred way, but,
like any martyr, its memory will forever remain in the memory of any loving believer of beauty
and holiness.
The perpetrators of these ruthless attacks were the people of the north, the Danish and
Norwegian Scandinavians. The Vikings will also change the face of the whole of Europe,
especially England, which they will invade and will dominate politically and culturally for three
centuries. Their contribution to the history of the English people will be an essential one and will
lead to the last stage of the formation of England.

The legacy of Celtic Christianity

The Celtic tradition of the Church is a fundamental step in shaping Christianity.

Although largely forgotten, this tradition holds the utmost importance in the rediscovery of
Christianity in the West. Only an ignorant theologian can overlook such a spiritual treasure that
has been offered to the whole world. Irish asceticism is certainly the product of the Egyptian, but
more than that, Celtic asceticism has surpassed its precursor in both intensity and importance.
Celtic Christianity has sublimely united the Eastern and Western traditions and created an
authentic spiritual way of living. We can only greet with enthusiasm and admiration the efforts
of the Romanian monk Serafim Aldea to revive authentic Christianity on the island of Mull near
the holy island of Iona by restoring an old church dedicated to Saint Ninian.
So convinced were the monks of the reality of the presence of God that they
embarked in their small Irish-specific vessels and were carried away by the currents of the North
Atlantic to the unknown in the hope of discovering new desert islands where they could devote
themselves to prayer and contemplation. In this way the Irish were the first to discover the Faroe
Islands and Iceland and settled there. Following them were crucifixes, altars and high prayers.
A case of crucial importance is that of Saint Brendan the Navigator, a sixth-century
Irish monk, one of Ireland's Twelve Apostles. According to St. Brendan's Life and St. Brendan's
Journey, the abbots, papers written centuries later, he, together with 16 disciples, set out at sea in
search of the Blessed Island, identified by many researchers from North America.
Saint Brendan organized this expedition motivated by Saint Barrid who had already
visited the island of Paradise. According to legend, St. Brendan's journey would have lasted
seven years. Legend would have been of this journey if some Old West Irish inscriptions using a
special and unique alphabet, called Ogam, had not been discovered on some rocks in West
Virginia. According to researcher Barry Fell, who deciphered these writings, the inscriptions
translate as follows: for the Wyoming petroglyphs: "During sunrise on Christmas day, a ray
reaches the ridge on the left" - figure M1, "a church feast." , the first season of the year "- figure
M2," the season of the blessed post of the Birth of the Savior, Christ. "- figure M3," Behold, He
was born of Mary, a woman "- figure M4, M5, M6.
Fell believes that these ancient inscriptions are part of an archaic solar calendar. In
one of his articles, Barry Fell states: “In order to prove this theory, a small group of researchers
decided to check the translation. Calculating the difference between the Julian calendar used up
to the sixteenth century and the Gregorian calendar today, they met at petroglyphs shortly before
dawn on December 22, 1982. They waited in silence as the sun rose. from the sunrise and pour
over the mountains emanating rays on the rock in front of them. They watched with astonishment
as the first ray of sunlight was channeled like a lantern through a crack with three sides of rock
and aimed straight into the center of a solar symbol to the left of the ensemble. As they watched
with astonishment, the ray pushed the shadow from left to right, bathing the whole message in
the sunlight like a prehistoric neon, announcing a new Christmas, as it has done for centuries.
Before their eyes, they received a message for centuries. Subsequent visits showed that the
phenomenon appeared only in the winter solstice, and in other parts of the year the sun shone
only part of the message. In 1985 the distinguished Celtic scholar, Professor Robert T. Meyer
visited the place and answered a question about the authenticity of these words: <No one could
have falsified these things unless they had a deep knowledge of Celtic philosophy, for that what
is here is archaic, probably from the 6th or 7th centuries. These, for the Celtic researchers, are
just as important as the Dead Sea discoveries ... because they show that the Irish monks, I
believe, came here, I would say, somewhere 1500 years ago ”46.
Writing in the Ogam alphabet from the Wyoming petroglyphs is accompanied by
signs very similar to the Christian symbol ChiRo. The combination of the two letters that make
up the monogram of Christ are very similar in Fell's opinion to those of Byzantine coins issued
during Justinian's time. As for the petroglyphs from Horse Creek, Barry Fell describes them as
follows: "A wonderful season is Christmas, a time of joy and well-being for all people" - figure
O-1, "a virgin took to the belly, God led her to conceive and bear fruit. Ah, here, what a wonder!
"- figure O-2," she gave birth to a son in the cave. The name of the cave was the Cave of
Bethlehem. His adoptive father gave him the name of Jesus, Christ, Alpha and Omega, the
festive season of prayer ” 47- figure O-3. Fell believes that these inscriptions date from the 6th-8th
centuries.
Professor Barry Fell has been highly criticized by other American archaeologists for
interpretations given to West Virginia petroglyphs, considering his views to be pseudo-scientific
and unreliable48. Moreover, in 1989 lawyers Monroe Oppenheimer and Willard Wirtz accused
Fell of deliberate fraud in an article based on the opinions of archaeologists and linguists 49. In a
survey conducted in 1983 involving 340 archaeologists, Barry Fell's interpretation received
negative opinions from most of the interviewees50.
However, none of the researchers fighting Fell could come up with another
interpretation for the petroglyphs in West Virginia. David H. Kelley, a staunch challenger to
Fell's interpretation, however, acknowledges that the inscription is Celtic and admits that due to
Barry Fell there is this controversy of Irish monks in America 51. Although many of the theories

Barry Fell, Christian Messages in Old Irish Script Deciphred from Rock Carvings in West Virginia, Wonderful
46

West Virginia, Vol. 47, 1983, p. 12-19

http://appalachianmagazine.com/2014/10/05/evidence-the-irish-found-west-virginia-before-columbus-
found-america/
47
Barry Fell, Christian Messages in Old Irish Script Deciphred from Rock Carvings in West Virginia, p. 12-19
48
Lesser W. Hunter, Cult Archaeology Strikes Again: A Case for Pre-Columbian Irishmen in the Mountain State,
The West Virginia Archaeologist, Vol. 35, 1983
49
Monroe Oppenheimer, Willard Wirtz, A Linguistic Analysis of Some West Virginia Petroglyphs, The West
Virginia Archeologist, Vol. 41, No. 1, 1989
50
K. L. Feder, Irrationality and Popular Archaeology, American Antiquity, Vol 49, No. 3, 1984, p. 525-541
51
D. H. Kelley, Proto-Tifinagh and Proto-Ogham in the Americas: Review of Fell; Fell and Farley; Fell and
Reinert; Johannessen, et al.; McGlone and Leonard; Totten, The Review of Archaeology, 1990
launched by Fell are indeed pseudo-scientific, with regard to the description of these petroglyphs
there is a great chance that he will have discovered the mystery.
In 1981 Robert Pyle, an amateur archaeologist, discovered in the same cave in
Wyoming, West Virginia, where the remains of petroglyphs from a human skeleton are located.
DNA remains were discovered at Brigham Young University in Utah on the remains of a man,
who concluded that they belonged to a man who lived here around 710. The DNA of the skeleton
discovered by Pyle matches those specific to the European space, more specifically the British
Isles. The tests also showed that the remains belonged to a person of a very old age, specific to
Celtic monks.
Not far from the site he also discovered a fragment of bone that had engraved words
on both sides written in the ogamic alphabet. Immediately Pyle began to make the connection
between the two discoveries.
Examinations made with carbon on the bone fragment revealed that it is dated
somewhere in 2300 BC. Hr., But the markings on it were made somewhere in the V-VI
centuries.
Robert Pyle concludes that this fragment of bone was left behind by Irish monks who
visited these places almost 1500 years ago. In order to seek clearer answers and to prove his
theory, the archaeologist visited Ireland repeatedly. Under the supervision of Irish scientists, Pyle
studied various artifacts written in the ogam alphabet, further reinforcing his beliefs.
The bone fragment was carefully researched, examined and analyzed by a team of
researchers from the Universities of Edinburgh and Marylamd. According to experts in Celtic
linguistics, Dr. William Grant and Dr. John Grant, the artifact was written in the archaic alphabet
ogamic, in conclusion it is authentic. The two were derided by the community of researchers in
the field who preferred to completely ignore the discovery. Like Barry Fell, Robert Pyle was
vehemently criticized by the community of archaeologists, who found his views interesting. In
1989 the prestigious West Virginia Archaeologist Magazine, which I quoted above, published an
article dedicated to the West Virginia site that sought to dismantle the theory of Irish monks in
America. The chief editor, archaeologist Janet Brashler, has come to the conclusion that these
inscriptions in the shape of a turkey leg respect the common patterns of Native American
petroglyphs. Then how can one explain, Robert Pyle asks, the existence of the engravings in the
form of a cross and other Christian symbols, but also of the unique elements specific to the
Ogamian writing?
Between 1998 and 2000 Pyle traveled again to Ireland where he was invited to join a
team of specialists who examined new petroglyphs discovered on the island, written in the
ogamic alphabet, and closely resembled petroglyphs in Wyoming.
Robert Pyle acknowledged that his theory would give rise to many controversies and
that it could not be proved in a human life, but he wanted his merits to be recognized if science
would prove the truth of his assertions.
Pyle also wrote a book on this subject titled All That Remains: A West Virginia
archaeologist's discoveries. His work has been a real success and amounts to more than three
decades of research and dedication on a topic of maximum interest.
Between 1976 and 1977 British historian, writer and explorer Tim Severin showed
the whole world that it was possible for Saint Brendan or other Irish monks to cross the Atlantic
to North America using the weather technology. In a sailboat with two sails built according to
the models used by the Irish of the 6th century called currach, ash and oak, wrapped in ox skins
and stuffed with seal fat, Tim Severin, together with his team , sailed more than 7,200 km for 13
months of Irish danger on Peckford Island, Newfoundland, Canada. In his route he made stops in
the Hebrides and Iceland where they spent the winter.
His experiences have been filmed and transposed into an exceptional documentary
that seeks to capture many of the legendary elements found in Navigatio Sancti Brendani such as
"The Island of Oils" - Faroe Islands, "Paradise Birds" - all part of the group of Faroe Islands ,
"Iasconius" - blue whales in the North Atlantic, "mountains throwing stones at seafarers" -
volcanoes in Iceland, "fog surrounding the Promised Land" - dense mist characteristic of the
northwest Atlantic, between Greenland and Canada, "the coagulated sea "- the sea floor of
Labrador," crystal towers "- icebergs," Promised Land "- America? Tim Severin's maritime
expedition is a phenomenal achievement of the human spirit. Like St. Brendan and other Irish
monks who ventured on this spiritual and bodily journey at the same time, Severin and his team
proved the impossible. Convinced that Saint Brendan and other Celtic monks came to the North
American continent, Tim Severin showed the whole world that this trip was not only possible but
also probable. His book, The Brendan Voyage, has become an international bestseller, being
translated into 16 languages. Currently, the boat built and used by Tim Severin is on display at
the Craggaunowen Museum in County Clare, Ireland.
The subject of the discovery of America by the Irish monks deserves special attention
because they have come to the surface and other indications that lead us to the possibility of
proving this hypothesis. With the mercy of God we intend to write a future book on this topic. In
this paper we will return to the analysis of this theory when we present the discovery of America
by the Vikings.
We can see clearly the importance of Celtic Christianity in the universal history, a
significance that is overlooked today and unrecognized. Thanks to Irish monks who were never
incorporated into the Roman Empire, Romanity survived in the midst of a barbaric world. Britain
was enlightened and civilized with the help of energy emanating from monumental personalities
such as Saints Columba, Aidan or Cuthbert.
The Celtic tradition represents from our point of view the most beautiful
manifestation that Christianity has produced in the west and the gateway for Europeans to enter
into the mysteries of authentic Christianity. Through this magnificent tradition, the West have a
real chance to rediscover the ancient tradition and wisdom of deep Christianity. The Celtic
tradition is undoubtedly the treasure of Western Christianity.