Chapter 6: Neurotransmitters

Dopamine
 Controls brain’s reward center!
 Located in Ventral Tegmental Area
o Anterior to Pons
o Interacts with Nucleus Accumbens

Nicotine
 Nicotine binds NAchR on Dopaminergic Neurons
 Neurons can release dopamine to post synaptic neuron
o Pre-synaptic neuron can be controlled by different NTs
o Acetylcholine stimulates dopaminergic neuron to release
Dopamine
 Nicotine passes through blood brain barrier
o Activates neuron and releases Dopamine
o Produces good feeling and pushes you to seek that feeling
further

Nicotinic Affects
 Dependence  Needed for “reward” feelings
o Receptors are altered and deleted
o Creates a “Craving”
 Tolerance  More stimulus is needed to elicit the same affect

Depression
 Imbalances in Serotonin and Dopamine
o An increase of NTs can lead to happiness
 Consequences
 Cascading Affect
 Altering Serotonin can lead to OCD and Impulsive Behavior
 Altering Dopamine can lead to Parkinson’s

MAOI
 Mono Amine Oxidase Inhibitors (General)
o Block Degradation of 5 – HT, DA, Norepinephrine
o Elevated levels of Dopamine and Serotonin hang in Synapse
 Good Feelings
 Affects cells and circuits plagued by depression
o Takes time for it to actually work
SSRI
 Blocks reuptake of 5 – HT
o Allows for Serotonin to be present longer in Synapse
o Widespread  Breaks down other NTs
Parkinson’s Disease
 Occurs in Substantia Nigra
o Loss of Dopamine
o Controls voluntary movement
o Movement inhibition is no longer inhibited
 Slowed movement, Tremors, and Stiffness (Due to lack of mobility)

Parkinson’s Treatment
 Give precursor L-DOPA
 Cell breaks down and converts it into Dopamine
o Allows cell to function a bit longer
Chapter 7: Development, Structure, and Function of the Nervous System

Nervous System Structure

 CNS
o Brain
o Spinal Cord
 PNS
o Somatic
o Autonomic (Visceral)
 Least Control

Development of Nervous System

 Ectoderm (Outer) Tissue gives rise to Nervous System  Neurulation
o Tissue on medial side migrate and thicken to form neural plate
o Center wiggles down to form neural groove and folds
 Precursor to CNS
o Neural Folds come together to form Neural Tubes
o Neural Crest Cells detach and break off from closure point
 Form into PNS Tissue

Role of Mesodermal Tissue

 Mesoderm surrounds edges of neural tube
 Forms Somite’s  Early Spine
o Dots on Neural Tube
o Calcifies to become bone  Ends up as Vertebrae

Development of Brain
 Regions of the brain develop and differentiate into 3 Parts:
o Forebrain
 Telencephalon
 Diencephalon
 Optic Vesicles
o Midbrain
 Tegmentum
o Hindbrain
 Rest of the Brain
Forebrain (CBCFHAOL)
 Optic Nerves
 Telencephalon  Lobes of Brain Develop
o Cerebral Cortex
o Basal Ganglia
o Corpus Callosum
o Fornix
o Hippocampus and Amygdala
o Olfactory Bulbs
o Lateral Ventricles
 Diencephalon (THT)
o Thalamus and Hypothalamus
o Third Ventricle

Midbrain
 Tectum (TTAP)
o Superior Colliculus  Visual Relay and Contralateral Visual Reflexes (Ear, Head,
Neck)
o Inferior Colliculus  Auditory Relay and Contralateral Auditory Reflex (Ear, Head,
Neck)
o Major overlap  Lots of Crossing
o Reflexes of Auditory and Visuals
 Tegmentum
 Cerebral Aqueduct
 The Cerebral Peduncles  Connecting Fibers

The Tegmentum (VCSP)

 Below Colliculus
 Ventral Tegmental  Reward Center
 Periaqueductal Gray Matter (PAG)  Around Aqueducts
o Descending Pain Molecules
 Substantia Nigra  Voluntary Movements
 Several Connecting Fibers (Reticular Formation)
o Connects Cerebrum to Hindbrain

Hindbrain (CPM)
 Cerebellum  Ipsilateral Movement
 Pons  Sends Signals from Cortex to Cerebellum
 Medulla Oblongata  Axons from Cortex to Spinal Cord Cross Here
o Autonomic Functions Here
Cerebrum (Telencephalon, Diencephalon)
 Perception, integration of signals, learning and memory, emotion, higher order thinking
 Cerebral Cortex (Lobes)
o Above Corpus Callosum and makes brain grooves (Giri)
 Thalamus
o Receives axons and sends them to appropriate cortex
 Hypothalamus
o Controls ANS 4 F’s (Fight, Flight, Feed, Sex)
 Corpus Callosum
o Connects Hemispheres
 Hippocampus
o Short Term Memory  Signals go to Fornix
 Fornix
o Relays Hippocampus signal into cortex and sends to appropriate response site
 Basal Ganglia
o Where motor movement is controlled

Cute Tings Hate Coming to Houston For Brunch

Cerebral Cortex (Lobes)
 Occipital Lobe  Visuals
 Temporal Lobe  Memory, Language, Olfaction, Auditory
o Michael Lewis Over Anything
 Frontal  Speech, Taste, Decision Making, Emotion, Stimulus Response
o Stupid Speeches End up Making me Tired
 Central Sulcus  Separates Frontal and Parietal Lobes
o Primary Motor Cortex (In front)  Movement
o Primary Somatosensory Cortex  Sense Perception
 Parietal Lobes  Creates separation of sensory system

Protection of CNS
 Skull and Vertebrae
 The Meninges  Membranes that encase CNS Tissue
 o Dura Matter  Outermost Covering
o Arachnoid Membrane  Underneath
 Subarachnoid Space  Filled with CSF
o Pia Matter  Filled with Blood Vessels
 Separate form Nervous Tissue

The Ventricles
 Lateral
o Largest  Start at middle and moves laterally
  3rd Ventricle (Cerebral Aqueduct)
o Pocket in Middle
 th
4 Ventricle
o Leads down the Brain
 Central Canal
o Between Brain and Spinal Cord
o Spinal Tap

Visualizing The Brain

 Computerized Tomography (CT SCAN)
 o Limited X – Ray to view Anatomical Structure
 Detect Tumors
 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
o Magnetic Fields
o More Atomic and Crisper Image
 Functional Brain Imaging
o Detection of Metabolic and Blood Flow Changes
o fMRI  Identifies Magnetic changed due to Metabolism
o PET  Labeled Isotope Accumulation
 Active and Non – Active

Cerebellum “Lump”
 Little Brain that
coordinates
movement and balance
o Gathers input from Spinal Cord and Pons
o Animals with great balance have large Cerebellum
 Refines Muscle Movements
 Inhibits movement when needed to
o Detects Sensory Movement and Environmental Changes
  Adjusts Accordingly

Brain Stem (Midbrain, Pons, Medulla)

 Relays information and regulates vital behaviors (Breathing)
o Axons are present (White Matter)
 Damage here is Lethal
Spinal Cord
 Links CNS and PNS
 Protected by Vertebrae
o Somite develops into Spinal Cord
 Spinal Nerve  Sensory and Motor Nerves
 Ganglion  Soma Collection
o Motor and Sensory
 Dorsal Side  Afferent
 Ventral Side  Efferent
o Dogs Always Smell Very Edible Meat

Cranial Nerves
 Part of CNS mainly
 12 Pairs of Cranial Nerves
o Originate in Brain Stem
o Innervate the Head
 Regulates sensation and movement within head and neck
Peripheral Nervous System
 Sensory Neurons  Detect
 Motor Neurons  Respond
 Somatic Nervous System  Innervates Skeletal Muscles
 Autonomic Nervous System  Innervates Glands, Smooth and Cardiac Muscles
o Parasympathetic  Rest or Relaxation
o Sympathetic  Fight or Flight
o Enteric  Gut Control
 Breathing, Heart Rate, Digestion Examples

Overview of Senses
 Gustation  Taste
 Olfactory  Smell
 Optical  Vision
 Auditory  Hearing
 Vestibular  Balance and Position in Space
o Proprioception  Receptors in Muscles
  Somatosensation  Pain and Temperature

The Approach
 Components of Detection
 Pathway to Integration
o Almost all through Thalamus
 How these result in perception

Link Between Taste and Smell

 Vapors are released by meals
 Smelt first, creating an anticipation of flavor
 Vapors are released in mouth too
o Flavor  Combination of multiple senses

Chapter 8: Taste and Smell

Gustation Detection Components

 Tongue covered in Papillae
o Protuberance on tongue
 Taste Buds lined within Papillae
o Taste Buds have Taste Cells
  Synapse with Primary Afferent Neurons
 Found in Palate, Pharynx, and Upper Esophagus

Gustatory Distribution on Tongue

 Sweet, Salty, Umami  Found on tongue’s tip
o Vital for Body
 Bitter and Sour  Found in Back and Side
o Not as Vital
 Sour  Protons
 Bitter  Quinine (Tonic)
 Salty  Na+
 Sweet  Sugar
 MSG (Umami)  Glutamate
o All Activate Taste Cells

Possible Other Tastes

 CO2  Even though not strong, can detect it
o Seltzer Water
 Fat
o Energy and Age Dependent

Taste Transduction
 Stimulus  Electrical Response
 Salt and Sour
o Ionotropic Receptors Flood In
o VM Changes
 Doesn’t look like Neuron
 + Charge in Food Activates Channels
o Triggers Action Potential and NT Release on Gustatory Cortex
 Sour  TRP Receptors

Taste Transduction
 Stimulus  Electrical Response
 Sweet/Bitter/Umami
o Metabotropic
 Sweet
o T1R2/T1R3 Receptors
o Tasty Treat
  Umami = Glutamate
o T1R1/T1R3
o Odd
 Bitter = Quinine
o T2R Receptors
o Time to Run

Metabotropic Taste Receptors

 G Protein Subunits activate IP3 Pathway
 IP3 binds to Ca2+
o Ca Channels Open
 ATP is released and acts as NT

Take Home of Taste Receptors

 Salt/Sour  Ionotropic
o Salt  Sodium Influx
o Sour  Proton Influx/ Potassium Channel Inhibition
o Serotonin Releases (NT)
 Sweet, Bitter, Umami  Metabotropic GPCR
o G Protein Subunits  IP3  Calcium
o ATP Releases

Taste Cells Show Bias in Stimuli

 Cell 1  Ionotropic
 Cell 2  Broader Range
 Afferent Response Mimics Cell Response
o Different Cells Detect Different Signals
 Allow you to tell where on tongue receptors are being activated

Gustation Perception
 Taste Cells Receive Signals
 Gustatory Nerves Receive Signals
 Sends to Gustatory Nucleus (Brain Stem)
 Sends to VPM Nucleus of Thalamus
o Travels up the Stem
 Received by Gustatory Cortex = Perception
Flavor
 Multiple Molecules in Food come together
 Temperature, Texture, Pain, etc.
 Smell and Taste

Olfaction
 ORN  Olfactory Receptor Neuron
o We don’t have an abundant amount compared to animals
o In Olfactory Epithelium
 Not our most important sense
 Volatile fumes can damage ORNs
o Can Regenerate

ORN
 Dendritic Extensions Covered in Cilia
o Increases Surface Area
 Protected by Mucus
o From Pathogen
 Neuron runs through Cribriform Plate to reach Olfactory Bulb

Olfactory Transduction
 Odorants Activate Metabotropic Receptors
 GOLF Protein  CAMP Production  Opens Ion Channels
o Causes Depolarize Ion Channels

Odorants and Receptors

 Can bind to multiple different odorants
 Combination of receptor activations = smell
o Multiple Odors create smell!
 Enters Endothelial within Nose
 Multiple receptors are activated
o Combination creates a certain smell

Olfactory Receptor Neuron Pathway

 Cells Receive signals at Olfactory Epithelium (Receptors)
 Travels to Olfactory Bulb
 Enters Olfactory Tract
 Enters Temporal Lobe (Pyriform Cortex)

Bulb to Reception
  Olfactory Tracts relays signals to Pyriform Cortex
o Only one that doesn’t relay through Thalamus

Chapter 9-10: The Visual System

What is the Stimuli?

 Light Photons
 Wavelengths from 400 – 700 nM are detectable
o These activate receptors
o Some are not visible
Eye Anatomy
 Sclera  White, Collagen based
o Protects the Eye
 Pupil  Opening that allows light to hit lens
o Space formed by Iris
 Iris  Pigmented Tissue
o Controls Pupil Size
o Can Dilate or Contract
o Light Prevention
 Cornea and Lens
o Converging and Focusing of Light
o Cornea  Outer Protection
o Lens  Behind Pupil and Deflects Protons to back of eye
 Retina  Thin Membrane in back of eye
o Covered in Photoreceptors
 Choroid  Nourishes and Anchors Retina
o Between Sclera and Retina
 Humors  Liquid Space
o Aqueous and Vitreous
 Optic Disk and Nerve  Exit of Optic
Fiber
o Disk  Convergence of axons
 Creates Blind spot
 Joins Nerve to go to Brain

Cells of the Eye

 Photoreceptors
o Rods  Activated at Night
o Cones  Provide Color
o Found at the bottom of the Retina
 Bipolar Cells
o Connect Photoreceptors to Ganglion Cells
  Reception and Relay
 Ganglion Cells
o Transmits Signals to Optic Nerve
 Horizontal Cells and Amacrine Cells
o Modulation of Signal
o Relays Signals to Bipolar and Ganglion Cells
 Creates Depth
 Neighboring Receptors Integrate with Each Other

Circuitry of Retina
 Light Enters
 Goes to Photoreceptors
o Modulation Occurs via Horizontal Cells
 Goes to Bipolar Cells
o Modulation Occurs at Amacrine Cells
 Received by Ganglion Cells
 Transmission to Optic Nerve
o From Back to Front

Structure of Rods and Cones

 Rods (Requires Less Photons)
o Longer
o Outer Segments Contain Lots of Disks
o Higher Sensitivity to Light
 Cones (Requires More Photons)
o Tapered Outer Segment
 Outer Segments of Rods and Cones
o Contacts Pigment Epithelium
o Disks Degradation
o Pigment Regeneration

Function of Rods and Cones

 Rods  Contains Rhodopsin (Low Light)
o Receptor
o More Active at Night
 Cones  Color (Bright Light)
Relationship Between Convergence and Resolution
 Multiple rods converge to 1 Bipolar Cell
o Make shapes in the dark
 Single Cone binds with Single Bipolar Cell
o A lot of Stimulus Needed

Distribution of Photoreceptors
  Cones  Highly concentrated in Fovea
 Rods are Concentrated on Retina Edges
o Cones are Concentrated in Fovea (Center)
 Gives High Resolution

Pigments and Photoreceptors

 Opsins  Receptors that interact with Photons
o Rods contain Rhodopsin
 Pigments  Molecules that absorb wavelengths of light
o Rods contain Retinal Pigment
 Cis Conformation
 Changes to Trans and causes Protein Shift
 Activated by light (Cis  Trans)

Hyperpolarization
 Light causes Hyperpolarization when Photons Bind
o Metabotropic Proteins
 Light controls optic neurons by graded potential by IPSPs
o Causes channels to close
o Opsin is Trans  NT are not released
o More Light = More Hyperpolarization
o Activates Bipolar Cells
 Sends Signal via Light

Hyperpolarization Process
 Opsin is Activated by Light
o Cis  Trans
 Decreases Secondary Messengers
 Na+ Channels Close

Phototransduction
 Photons can cause minor changed in VM through inhibition
o 1 mV change in Rod
 Changes Light Detection

Cones and Color Detection

 3 Specialized Cones (Based on their Opsins)
o Short, Medium, Long
 Reflect their detection of color
 White Color  All Opsins are Equally Activated
 Black  Lack of Color as material absorbs all light
Direct and Indirect Pathways to Bipolar Cells
 Plays a role in Depth Perception
 Direct
o Light hits Opsins and Hyperpolarizes Cell
 Activation of Bipolar Cell
 1:1 Reaction
 Indirect (Donut)
o Photons hit Surface Surrounding Center
 Not as much in the Center
o Outside Photoreceptors are activated
 Middle Receptors are not
o Horizontal Cells cause interactions with the receptors
 Integrate information
 Creates Edges
o Lead to 1 Bipolar Cell

Center vs. Surround Stimulation

 Horizontal Cells modulate bipolar responses between receptors
 Receptive Field Center  1:1
o Send Directly to Bipolar Cells
 Receptive Field Surround  #:1
o Modulated by Horizontal Cells
 Then to Bipolar Cells

Simplified Optic Circuit

 Optic Nerves  Optic Chiasm  Optic Tract

Partial Crossing at Chiasm

 Left Visuals
o Left Eye  Nasal Retina
o Right Eye  Temporal Retina
o Travels to Right Optic Tract
 If seen by right and left eye, no crossing
 If seen only by right eye, crossing
  Right Visuals
o Right Eye  Nasal Retina
o Left Eye  Temporal Retina
o Travels to Left Optic Tract
 If seen by left and right eye, no crossing
 If seen only by left eye, crossing
 Overview
o Signals are transmitted to opposite hemisphere

Simplified Optic Circuit (Cont.)

 Optic Tract  Thalamus LGN (Lateral Genicular Nucleus)  Primary Visual Cortex

Loss of Peripheral Field of View

 Prechiasm Lesion
 At One Eye
o Nasal Retina is corrupted

Complete Loss of Peripheral Field of View

 Chiasm Lesion
 Produces Tunnel Vision
 Loss of Crossing Over
 Both Eyes
o Nasal Retinas Are Corrupted
o Crossing Over is Corrupted

Lass of Half Visual Field

 Post Chiasm Lesion
 Half of Visual Field is Gone
 Both Eyes
o Nasal Retina of One Eye
o Temporal Retina of Another Eye
o All Fibers are Corrupted

Beer Goggle Activity

 Brain is constantly adapting when stimulus changes
o Long Term changes cause Long Term Effects on Detection System
 During Development  Brain Connections are made
o Metabotropic  Gene Expressions is affected and altered
 Short Term  Cerebellum and Frontal Cortex are firing to adapt
o Influenced by short term changes
 o Firing Activity Changes

Direction of Information
 Bottom Up: Sensory  CNS Cortex
o Senses go to CNS for Response
 Top – Down: Cortex Relaying Back to Direct Attention
o Internal Motivation and Environment affects bias
o People Perceive Differently
 Different Systems Talk to One Another
o Visual Cortex and LGN of Thalamus
 Occipital Lobe detects
 Thalamus Inhibits Signals

Optic Circuitry
 Optic Nerve  Superior Colliculus of Tectum
o Controls Eye Movement
o Reflexes
o Alcohol Inhibits

Orientation Selectivity Within the Visual (Striate) Cortex

 Orientation of light activates different Optic Neurons
o Different neurons respond differently
o Pattern of light affects what is activated

Neuron Grouping
 Grouped together based off of orientation preference
o Activated by different orientations of light
o Influence neighboring neurons
 Inhibit/Activate Them

Direction Selectivity
 Preference for movement left to right in visual
field
o When light is moving
o Part of eye when light is moving
 Opposed to stationary light

Integration and Perception of Visual Cues

 Cortical Neuron responds to
o Changes in light (Dimming)
o Color
o Orientation of Light
o Direction of Light
 o Spatial Frequency
 Acuity  Resolution

What Your Brain Sees

 Cortical neuron detects different images
o Integrated to form final image

Context and Perception

 Brain fills in information
o Tries to autocorrect to give right colors
o Environment Effects Color
 Shade on Block