Chapter 4:

Classification
and
Organization in
the Ecosphere
 Group 4 Members:
• KHALISHWAYO T.N 218002795
• KHUMALO S 217038503
• KUNENE S 219014683
• LEKOANA M.K 219060849
• LETSOALO T.M 218011231 (Group Leader)
• MABASO C.P 219007519
• MABILANE M 218002551 NO WORK DONE
• MABOEE T.P 218022791 NO WORK DONE
• MABOWA M.M 218031849

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 4.1. Global classification system
Four different levels of ecological research.
• Individual organisms
• Population
• Community
• Ecosystem
• Ecological – is the study of the relationships between livings organisms, including
humans and their physical environment, and to understand the vital connections
between plants and animals and the world around them.
• Individual organisms every individual has two main objectives which is survival and
reproduction.
• Survival include obtaining food and prevention of extermination.
• Reproduction include aspects as pollination and fertilization and finding mate.
• Population include interactions within the populations of organisms.

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 • Community it relates to inter-species interactions.
• Ecosystem it include the study of various communities and their interactions
within a certain environment.
• All ecosystem form ecosphere which is that part of the earth where life is
found.

Figure 4.1: Levels of ecological research

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 4.1.1. Classification of living things
• Orderly arrangement of livings things and differences among various groups.
• Binomial system of classification which involves the naming of living things by
two names, one for the genus and one for the species.
• The first great division of livings things between plants and animals is
kingdoms.
• Plant kingdom follows same line expect that phylum is replaced by division as
seen in the diagram.

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 4.2. Organisms and Population
4.2.1. Species
• A Population define as the number of individual organisms of the same species on the certain area.

4.2.2. Isolation and distribution

• The earth displays the endemic to certain area, each continent has its own unique plant and animal
population.

• Plants and animals in similar but widely separated areas that have similar functions or filling niches are
known as ecological equivalents.

4.2.3. Habitat and niche

• The organism the area it lives it’s called habitat

• The ecological principle says that the two different species cannot occupy the same niche.

• Species may feed at different times of the day or night.

• The Intra-species competition is stronger than inter-species competition.

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 4.3. Communities
• A communities is a group of populations of two or more
different species occupying the same geographical area.
• A communities is independent of the size of the area.
• Species living within that specific community form
relationships, known as interspecific interaction.
• The are different types of this interaction such as parasitism,
commensalism, predation, etc. All of them happen within the
community.
• For the fact that species co-operate with one another there is
always going to be the dominant species. One that is so
important that if it dissipates the whole community will be in
danger from hunger, An example of a dominant species in a
community are plants.
• Stratification is phenomenon that occurs when species are
grouped separately because of the conditions around the
area. Conditions such as temperature, moisture, food, etc. So
species are grouped in order for them to sure in those
favourable conditions.

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 4.4. Ecosystem
• Ecosystem refers to a geographical area where plants, animals and
other organisms as well as weather and landscapes work together to
form a bubble life.

Three main types of ecosystems

• Terrestrial ecosystem
• Fresh water
• Marine ecosystem

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 4.4.1. Terrestrial Ecosystem
• Terrestrial ecosystem is land-based community of organisms and the
interactions of biotic and abiotic components in a given area.
• Characteristics of terrestrial ecosystem
• Terrestrial organisms are continually subjected to danger of dehydration due
to transpiration processes in plants and trough respiration in animals.
• Temperature variations are extreme as they are much greater as compared to
water Environment.
• The ratio between different gasses such as Oxygen, Carbon dioxide and
nitrogen is more constant than in environments.
• Land is not effective and this limits the distribution of organisms.

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 4.4 .1.1 Ad ap ta tions of lif e to a Te rrestrial Ecosyste m
• Conservation of water in tissue
• The ability to overcome temperature variations in a terrestrial ecosystem

4.4.1.1.1.Prevention of water loss

• Water loss refers to any fluids secreted from the body
• The main cause of water loss is through evaporation from surfaces exposed to the
environments.
• In plants water is controlled by the stoma which opens and closes while the rest of
the remains fairly impervious to water.
• The presence of wax-like substance in leaves can further reduce water loss.
• Animals that have naked skin are forced to remain inactive in dry conditions and only
become active in moist conditions
• Short life cycles and entering resting period can help animals to escape shortage of
moisture.

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 4 . 4 . 1 . 1 .2 . W a t e r I n t a ke
• Water intake refers to the amount of water that has been taken or withdrawn
from the source.
• Plants obtain water through their roots.
• Animals obtain water through drinking.
• Some animals obtain water from the food they eat while other organisms
such as spiders obtain water by means of capillary action directly from the
soil.
• Arthropods which is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton absorbs
water vapor directly from the air.

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 4.4.1.1.3. Thermo regulation
• Thermo regulation is a process that allows your body to maintain its core
internal temperature.
• Animals regulate their body temperature by means of sweating.
• Animals in deserts do not use water for thermo regulations instead they hide
underground during the heat of the day.
• Some animals regulate their body temperatures through Hibernation and
Aestivation.
• Hibernation is a state where animals sleep through the winter to escape
unfavourable conditions while in aestivation they sleep through summer.

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 4.4 .1.2. Biog eogr aphic Distr ic t & Associated Biom es

• Biogeographic regions are divided into six according to the fundamental features of animals
found in those areas (Suggested by A.R Wallace in 1876).
The Regions were referred as reals and were named:
• Nearctic( North America),
• Neo Tropical ( Central & South America)
• Palearctic (Europe, Northern Asia & Northern Africa)
• Ethiopian (Central & Southern Africa)
• Oriental (Indian Subcontinent & Malaysia)
• Australian
• Arctic & Antarctic
• Madagassian
• Holarctic Figure 4.2: Wallace’s faunal

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 Realms are dominated Categorially:
Animals
• North America is dominated by large
mammalian herbivores such as Bison &
Pronghorn Antelopes.
• South America is dominated by Agouti.
• Australians by Kangaroo.
• The central and Southern Africa is a home to
many species such as Giraffes and Various
species of Antelopes,
Plants & Invertebrates
• In Wallace’s realms includes Biotic
provinces; regions inhabited characteristics
of taxa, bounded by barriers that prevent
spread and migration of foreign species
• Organisms in biotic provinces share a
common genetic heritage regardless of
being in isolated environment,

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 • Biomes are subdivisions of biographic region and can be differentiated on the basis of
climate and plant structure.
• Vegetation is a summary of all current environmental co-ordinations, giving results of
increase in specific habitat for animal and plant life (see figure 4.3).

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 4.4.1.2.1. Tundra
• The Arctic tundra is between the 60 N & North Pole, where there are no trees due to
varying temperatures or 6C in summer & 40C in winter.
• The low temperatures limit the growing season by approximately 60 days even though the
A.R regions receive the same light irrespective of altitude.
• Only few centimeters of the frozen ground melt during the short summer season with long
days that enable the large food production.
• The life cycle of animals and plants is completed in a shorter amount of period and where
necessary move to a favorable environments.
• Shallow pools and arctic ocean provide additional food but hardly plant species.
• Quantic and terrestrial production is enough to feed birds, insects and large animals.
• When the ice melts mosquitoes appear, Young birds and chicks breed from them,
• Mosquitos that survive the larval stage in turn feed on migratory birds.

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 • Tundra and desert regions are most vulnerable biomes on earth with long
recovery time,
• Oils and minerals are most exploited in this areas and an increase in
recreational activities are spotted.
• The Tundra like regions are mountain ranges with snow covered parts lower
altitudes. The photosynthesis is influenced by altitude, while the
atomospheric pressure can be limiting factor.

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 Table 4.2: Represent the comparison of biological productivity between the Tundra and other biomes
Secondary
Animal productivity of
Biomass consumptio Secondary animal matter Animal
Area
Ecosystem type
(106 km2)
of litter n
production (Kg ha- I yr.- I) biomass
(109 t) (106 t yr.-I) (106 t)
(10 6 t yr.-I)

Tropical rain forest 17.0 3.4 2600 260 152.9 330

Tropical seasonal forest 7.5 3.8 720 72 96.0 90
Temperate evergreen forest 5.0 15.0 260 26 52.0 50
Temperate deciduous forest 7.0 14.0 420 42 60.0 110
Boreal forest (taiga) 12.0 48.0 380 38 31.7 57
Woodland and shrubland 8.5 5.1 300 30 35.3 40
Savannah 15.0 3.0 2000 300 200.0 220
Temperate grassland 9.0 3.6 540 80 88.9 60
Tundra 8.0 8.0 33 3 3.8 3.5
Desert and semi-desert scrub 18.0 0.36 48 7 8
Extreme desert (sand), polar regions 3.9
Cultivated land 0.02
24.0 0.03 0.2 0.008 0.02
Swamp and Marsh 9
14.0 1.4 90 6
Lake and stream 32 6.4
2.0 5.0 320 20
10 160.0
2.0 100 10
50.0

Total continental 149.0 111.0 7811 909 05

Open ocean 332.0 16600 2500 75.3 800

Up welling zones 0.4 70 11 275.0 4
Continental shelf 26.6 3000 430 161.7 160
Algal bed and coral reef Estuaries 0.6 240 36 600.0 12
1.4 320 48 342.9 21

Total marine 361.0 20230 3025 83.8 997

Full total 510.0 28041 3934 2002
(Remade, 1984:13)

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 4.4.1.2.4. Temperature deciduous forests
• This is the biome that covers the eastern part of the U.S.A., almost the whole Europe,
the South East Cost of Australia, parts of Japan and Southern South America.
• The rainfall is high, between 750 and 1500mm per year. Stratification is well developed
with trees, shrubs, herbs and grass. Plants consists mainly of covered seeds that
includes flowering.
• The trees in this forests produce edible fruits or nuts which provide source of food for
a large variety of mammals, birds and insects.
• Food chains are well developed and there is large animal and plant diversity.

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 4.4.2.2. Lotic communities
In lotic communities there is Ecologist that divide flowing water ecosystem into two stream types:
1. Streams where erosion is degradations ( in other words where erosion is lowered) and as a result the
bed of the river consists of firm material.
2. Streams where deposition is aggradation and its bed is filled with sediments
• The word refer to matters that settles to the bottom of liquid.
• That stream is divided into sections such as youth, maturity and old age.
• Youth sections are distinguished by fast flowing streams, the figure below shows the example of
youthful stream section.
• The flow in youthful stream is turbulence and the oxygen content of water is high, temperatures are
relatively low because the vertical erosion is dominant and the rivers are narrow

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 4. 4.2 .3 . A da p ta tio ns of O rg an ism s to a Wa te r
Enviro nm e nt
 Water is completely different environment as compared to soil and air
 The organisms that live in water need certain adaptation in order to survive, so the following
can be identified in order for water living organisms to survive:
• Maintenance of ecological position
• Movement (swimming and crawling)
• Obtaining food
• Respiration which takes place in three ways:
o Gas exchange
o Respiratory organs such as gills and lungs ( organisms like fish, snail and crabs have gills where surface cells are in direct contact
with the water and gas exchange is therefore directly possible)

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 4.4.3. Ma rine ecosystems
Marine ecosystem is one of the largest ecosystem that exist. The life exists in the deepest parts of
the ocean. So the oceanic food chains begins with small autotrophs and ends with big fishes and
whales.
• Autotrophs are organisms that normally can produce their own food, using materials from
inorganic sources, in order words they can feeds itself without the assistance of any other
organisms.
• Continental shelf is relatively productive and is the are of seabed around a large mass where the
sea is relatively shallow compared with open ocean.
• Marine ecosystems are less understood than terrestrial ecosystems.
• Marine ecosystems have ecological boundaries that are difficult to define because they are
dynamic.
• They are different types of zones in marine ecosystems:
o Coastal zone
o Inter-tidal zones ( is the ocean meets the land and submerged and exposed sometimes)
o Pelagic zone (open ocean)
o Benthic zone (the bottom zone consists of sand, silt and dead organisms
o Abyssal zone (deep ocean)

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 4.4.4. Coastal lakes a nd the coa stline

• Coastal lake is located between the continent and it is among the most fertile
ecosystems in the world.
• Coastal lakes have been the most exploited but least appreciated
environment and have been influenced by variety of coastal development.
• Coastal lakes serves as important breeding grounds for many types of fishes
and shellfish.
• Coastline for argument sake is the boundary where land meets water.

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 4.5. Ecotones

• Ecotone is the transition zone between two adjacent ecosystems

• Ecotone is characterized by mixture of species of both ecosystem
characteristics.
• Most of the species in the ecotones are visitors from ecosystem and return
back after adapted.
• There types of species that likely remain in ecosystem known as border
species and are found between the spring tide high, and neap low.

E N D ! ! !
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