The Arts in Psychotherapy 40 (2013) 1–5
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The Arts in Psychotherapy
Music therapy as an Anti-Oppressive Practice
Sue Baines, MA, BMT, BMus ∗,1
Doctoral Candidate Music and Health Research Group University of Limerick, Republic of Ireland
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Keywords: Many human service fields have employed the term Anti-Oppressive Practice but it has yet to be named in
Anti-Oppressive Practice music therapy. This article provides a brief overview of the history, applications and role of the integration
Music therapy of Anti-Oppressive Practice theory to music therapy. The historical roots of Anti-Oppressive Practices in
Feminist
music therapy are described with the intent of opening discussion on Anti-Oppressive Practices in music
Critical analysis
therapy.
Ethical
Social justice
Community Music Therapy
Introduction
It is my contention that respectful, efficacious ethically, account-
able music therapy scholarship and practice require analysis with
the lens of Anti-Oppressive Practice to fully facilitate the strengths
and potentials of clients through music therapy. Researchers and
theorists who write about the experience of people who are differ-
ently abled, or experience social exclusion for a range of reasons
support this view. As Lago (2011) has stated,
Many persons in society who are considered to be different and
diverse are likely to be exposed to discrimination, exclusion, and
(physical, emotional, and psychological) pain from people and
institutions with the dominant majority group in society. Such
negative treatment can severely impact their levels of trust,
self-confidence, fear, anxiety, and future life opportunities. (p.
239–240).
Throughout my twenty plus years of varied music therapy
practice supporting people through the lifespan in community,
clinical, educational, and correctional facilities, I have participated
in a process of critique of my approach and practice. I ask myself
questions such as: Is the dominant oppressive paradigm creep-
ing into the way I practice music therapy? Is my music therapy
approach an act of white patriarchal supremacy? Am I advancing
colonial goals? This way of questioning the process comes out of
my understanding and integration of ideas from Feminist Theory
and Critical analysis.
∗ Tel.: +1 604 876 9999.
E-mail address: s.baines@shaw.ca
1
Doctoral Candidate at the University of Limerick, Ireland.
0197-4556/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aip.2012.09.003
© 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Background
I was raised in a family where there was a discourse of question-
ing authority and in particular, critiquing of patriarchal structures
in our family, community, and culture. This was the foundation
for my early understanding of Feminism and how Feminism was
important for the wellbeing of our immediate as well as our global
community. Donna Baines (1988), my sister, writes,
One’s understanding of the world and how one interacts with
it is based on the ideology one consciously or unconsciously
adheres to . . . I find it very important to ensure that I have cho-
sen my preferred ideology based on thorough examination of
available options. Further, I believe it critical to integrate my
preferred ideology into my [] practice in a consistent and care-
ful way. Failure to do so would result in the dominant ideology
of this system popping up in undesired and unrecognized areas
of my [] practice. This would be a significant disservice to my
clients and my self. (p. 1).
My early studies in Feminism began through critiquing the
patriarchal status quo first via the lens of Feminist Theory (Friedan,
1963; Greer, 1970; The Boston Women’s Health Collective, 1973)
and then Feminist Therapy (Dutton-Douglas and Walker, 1988;
Lerner, 1988; Miller, 1976; Robbins and Siegel, 1983; Sturdivant,
1980). As I continued my studies in the social sciences, humanities,
and health in university, I enhanced my critical analysis adding
Radical Psychiatry into my theoretical perspective, (Burstow and
Weitz, 1988; Chesler, 1971; Laing, 1960; Penfold and Walker, 1983;
Szasz, 1974). These readings among many others further politi-
cized the way I viewed and participated in all aspects of education
as well as health care service delivery. However, on-going negative
social, political, and in particular, media backlash regarding the
use of the terms Feminist, Marxist, and Radical, interfered with
the transmission of the social justice message of these theoretical
2 S. Baines / The Arts in Psychotherapy 40 (2013) 1–5
positions leaving me struggling to find a welcoming space in which
to express these opinions.
Subsequently, I became aware of social justice theoretical per-
spectives that were being explored in other areas of study such as in
social work where the influence of post-modernism was emerging.
Mullaly (2001) wrote that,
Because the world is characterized by diversity, multiplicity,
pluralism, and conflict rather than sameness, unity, monism
and consensus, postmodernists believe that no group should try
to define the reality, needs, interests or experiences of another
group. The welfare state and social work practice have tended
to overlook differences and diversity and have, instead, carried
out policies and practices of homogenization, exclusion, bureau-
cratic control and surveillance, hierarchical decision-making
and professional expertise. (p. 307)
Ultimately, the ongoing misunderstanding and misappro-
priating of the term Feminism and my increasing curiosity
about such paradigms as Anti-Imperialism, Anti-Racism, critical
post-modernism, post-structuralism, post-colonialism, disability
studies, and other partners in social justice, started me on a
search for a semantically more focused and socially more acces-
sible phrase. This investigation led me to the term Anti-Oppressive
Practice, which my sister Donna Baines introduced me to in her
2007 publication on the subject.
What is anti-oppressive practice?
“Anti-Oppressive Practice is a heterodox, umbrella term
[that] borrows bits and pieces from various theories. . .. Marxist,
Feminist, Anti-Imperialism, Anti-Racist, critical post-modernism,
post-structuralism . . .” (Baines, 2011, p. 13). Anti-Oppressive
Practice asserts that power imbalances are based on age, class,
ethnicity, gender identity, geographic location, health, ability,
race, sexual identity, and income and that personal troubles are
seen as inextricably linked to these oppressive structures. Anti-
oppressive analysis declares that power imbalances “are embedded
in the profit-model of patriarchal, racialized, homophobic, colo-
nial capitalism,” (Baines, 2011, p. 19). Typical characteristics of
Anti-Oppressive Practice include, “critical consciousness raising,
solidarity and balancing the voice of clients with social justice, and
linking with social movements and unions,” (Baines, 2011, p. 86).
Anti-Oppressive Practices is being explored throughout human
services fields but most thoroughly addressed in the field of Social
Work. “Anti-Oppressive Practice became part of a wide ranging,
emancipatory approach to social work, emphasizing social jus-
tice and social change,” Collins and Wilkie (2010, p. 761). For
instance, Anti-Oppressive Practice social work services in England
are being developed for members of the travellers clans (nomadic
family groups of persons of Irish descent) as reported by Cemlyn
(1999). Heenan (2005) described that Anti-Oppressive Practice
social work education strategies are being developed to address
negative stereotypes of disability benefit recipients in Northern
Ireland. Social work educators, Walter et al. (2011), courageously
address how “Whiteness” effects their practice in Australia. Again
in social work, Parrott (2009) illuminates that Anti-Oppressive
Practices need to be applied to concepts of culture explaining, “Cul-
tures are . . . relative to time and social context, different groupings
within cultures struggle and negotiate the content and meaning
of their particular culture,” (p. 620). The aforementioned articles
offer a brief sampling of social work literature in Anti-Oppressive
Practices.
The Anti-Oppressive Practice movement has deep roots in ped-
agogical studies as well. In a landmark text, Brazilian educator
Friere (1970) proposed a revolutionary new relationship between
the teacher, the student, and society. Friere’s work has been cri-
tiqued by some scholars for being limited, or “not going far enough”
(Facundo, 1984; Taylor, 1993) (certainly not far enough to address
my Feminist Analysis), according to Stern (2009) Friere’s book is
increasingly used among teacher training programs in the United
States. More recent pedagogical studies in Anti-Oppressive teacher
education strategies are outlined in Jones’ (2011) research. Jones
studied increasing teacher’s awareness of the disability perspective
leading to a commitment to address the explored injustice. Educa-
tor De Lissovoy (2010) discussed the cultural politics of education
presenting a ‘decolonial’ paradigm. Again, the aforementioned
articles are but a brief sampling of writings in anti-oppressive ped-
agogy.
Additional human services are initiating exploration of Anti-
Oppressive Practices. Doctors are encouraged by Thesen (2005)
that “By acknowledging that oppressive practices are taking place
in medical practice it should be possible to develop strategies
for counteracting dehumanizing oppressive behaviour, and to
stimulate patient empowerment in the clinical context,” (p. 48).
Sociologist/anthropologist Anne Scott (1999) considered some of
the tensions present in anti-oppressive medical practice. In the
field of nursing, Martin and Younger (2000) studied how nurses
using an Anti-Oppressive Practice model could negotiate empow-
erment with elders with dementia living in long-term residential
care facilities. They note that once an anti-oppressive model is
introduced, increased empowering interactions are maintained
over time. Flood et al. (2006), observed similar results in their
work in acute psychiatry. Barnes and Brannelly (2008) concurred
in their article addressing nursing Anti-Oppressive Practice for per-
son with dementia. That same year, MacDonald (2008) explored
how Anti-Oppressive Practice is effective with chronic pain suffer-
ers. Campbell (2011) opened a dialogue in Anti-Oppressive Practice
in psychology in his article on difference and oppression. In dis-
ability studies, Gilbert, Lankshear, and Petersen (2007) sensitized
us that beyond the typical characterizations of oppression such
as racism, ageism, etc., new research is addressing how these
oppressions can interact and must be addressed in combination.
Sociologist and Health Researcher, Gunaratnam (2008) discussed
care for “elders from racialized minorities,” (p. 24). Anti-Oppressive
Practices literature in these aforementioned fields is just beginning
and the articles are rather few and far between but clearly, the
Anti-Oppressive Practice movement is gaining ground in a number
of areas of healthcare. Although Anti-Oppressive Practice has not
yet been named in music therapy, the roots are present and will
now be explored.
Early roots of anti-oppressive practice in music therapy
Here I trace the roots of Anti-Oppressive Practice in music ther-
apy. This review reveals that elements of Anti-Oppressive Practices
can be found in the work of a number of music therapy approaches.
Kenny (1982, 1985, 1989) courageously leads this group. She
examined the music therapy space and proposed a theory of music
therapy that addressed the emergent self supported in a safe space
for human growth and development. She critiqued models of the
day that purported expectations of the ideal way to be and live,
which venerated the white male, and instead she proposed a more
inclusive ecological paradigm. In 1988, Edith Boxill edited a spe-
cial issue of Music Therapy: The Journal of the American Association
for Music Therapy on the topic of Music Therapy for Living. In her
editorial, Boxill queried, “what multifaceted role music and music
therapy, when internationally and consciously used to create rela-
tionships, can play in the grand context of world peace,” (Boxill,
1988, p. 3) soliciting music therapists, in addition to providing
ethical music therapy practice, to commit to work outside the
 S. Baines / The Arts in Psychotherapy 40 (2013) 1–5
treatment room to create a socially just/peaceful future. In this
special issue, Ruud (1988) shared his constructivist philosophy of
reality, contrasting music therapy as a practice and as a cultural
phenomenon. Curtis (1990) surveyed women’s issues in the field
of music therapy using the principles of Feminism, extrapolating to
the negative impact ignoring these issues have on all of us. These
strands of knowledge began to coalesce in the late 1980s when ele-
ments of Critical Theory such as Family Systems Theory (Bruscia,
1984; Maranto and Bruscia, 1987, 1988), began to be incorporated
into the education and practice of music therapy.
The writings of Burstow and Weitz (1988), Chesler (1971),
Dutton-Douglas and Walker (1988), and Lerner (1988) influenced
me to write a radical Feminist Analysis of my music therapy training
and practical experiences to date, “The Sociocultural and Political
Analysis of Music Therapy: A Question of Ethics,” (Baines, 1992).
These theorists reviewed the roles of women in society and in
particular, in mental health. Diagnosis and treatment were decon-
structed illuminating the extreme inconsistencies between men
and women’s experiences and the subjugating manifestation of
women’s mental health.
The thesis I undertook was an introduction to the subject of Rad-
ical Feminism, the process of Feminist Analysis, and how to apply
a Feminist Analysis to music therapy practice. The ethical element
was drawn from Kenny’s (1982, 1985, 1989) work in which she
offered her inclusive ecological theoretical perspective as an ethical
imperative. Due to the intense political and media backlash against
Feminism in the early 1990s, I was concerned that the intended
title, “A Feminist Analysis of Music Therapy:...” could have been
misunderstood and possibly rejected by my intended audience
almost certainly decreasing potential readership and understand-
ing. So, in a political choice, I chose a more socially accessible title.
In the thesis, I explored the terms ‘music’, ‘therapy’, and ‘music
therapy’ using a sociocultural, political/Feminist Analysis (Baines,
1988; Burstow & Weitz, 1988; Dutton-Douglas and Walker, 1988;
Lerner, 1988): first sociocultural and political culminating with a
Feminist Analysis scrutinizing gender issues particularly. Next, I
researched the three most prominent music therapy models of
that time in the US and Canada: Activity Music Therapy, Improvi-
sational Models of Music Therapy, and Guided Imagery and Music.
My Feminist Analysis illuminated that historically each of the afore-
mentioned models was rooted in psychological theory developed
in Western Europe or the United States and on a music tradition
that was rooted and encultured in Western European musical forms
and attitudes, which ultimately defined music therapy practice in
a relatively narrow way. Professional Music Therapists typically
would offer their specific model of music therapy to prospective
clients, and then clients would be provided with a service within
that professionally defined model.
When addressed using a Feminist Analysis, these research find-
ings resulted in a reassessment of client-centeredness to fully
include the clients’ expertise, both personal and musical, as foun-
dational in ethical music therapy processes. This necessitated that
music therapists need to train more broadly in order to assist clients
by facilitating the client’s musical possibilities. The thesis con-
cluded by charging music therapists with taking their increased
education and skills into the social arena; to engage in social action
to support the development of our own and our clients’ political
voice to the goal of a more socially just world.
My thesis was followed in 1996 by Sandi Curtis’ (1996) doctoral
dissertation where Curtis undertook the development of a Feminist
Music Therapy model designed for the empowerment of women.
In her paper, Curtis researched topics such as male violence against
women, and pornography. She provided a well-defined approach
to studying lyrics that employed a gender analysis, understanding
the therapeutic value of story telling. Hadley and Edwards’ (2004)
article examining Feminism in music therapy was followed by the
3
first book exploring Feminism in music therapy (Hadley, 2006). This
groundbreaking book drew together a group of writers from differ-
ent backgrounds in various stages of Feminist Analysis to address
the role of Feminism in the field of Music Therapy. In 2007, this work
was further presented in a journal article, broadening the audience
for the topic (Edwards and Hadley, 2007). Next, Hahna (2011),
studied how Feminist music therapists integrate their philosophy
into their pedagogy. In Hahna’s far-reaching work, she reminds us,
most music therapists and music therapy educators are women and
it, “seems fitting, then, that music therapy education be based on a
pedagogy that is inclusive of women and seeks to promote change
for equality in both academe and society for both women, men,
and transgendered individuals,” (p. 14). Most recently, in 2012,
Curtis (2012), courageously addressed the topic of Music Therapy
and Social Justice through the illumination of her personal journey.
During these same years, there was growth in a number of other
models and theories of music therapy that employed elements of
critical theory (Aigen, 2005; Ansdell, 2002; Baines, 2000; Baines
and Danko, 2010; Brandalise, 2009; Bunt, 1994; Kenny and Stige,
2002; Pavlicevic and Ansdell, 2004; Rolvsjold, 2006, 2010; Ruud,
1998; Stige and Aaro, 2012; Stige, 2002a,b). In their writing they
described how they strove to identify and address power inequities
in music therapy. The list includes Resource-Oriented Music Ther-
apy (Rolvsjold, 2006, 2010), Music-Centered Music Therapy (Aigen,
2005; Brandalise, 2009), Culture-Centered Music Therapy (Stige,
2002) and Community Music Therapy (Ansdell, 2002; Baines, 2000;
Bunt, 1994; Kenny and Stige, 2002; Pavlicevic and Ansdell, 2004;
Ruud, 1998; Stige and Aaro, 2012; Stige, 2002). For example,
Rolvsjold (2006) critiqued traditional dominant structures:
From my stance as a music therapist in mental health care,
it seems that empowerment philosophy poses a significant
challenge to traditionally dominant perspectives in this field,
including music therapy practises. Empowerment argues force-
fully for the development of more resource-oriented practises
and collaborative approaches that require the professional to
journey beyond the role of the expert-therapist. Furthermore, it
influences our understanding of the functions of music in music
therapy towards a more user-led perspective.
Aigen (2005) philosophized about music’s central role in the
human experience, politicizing the role of the music therapist.
Frustrated with their experiences of music therapy as a restricted
practice operating within a clinic room with a closed door, Commu-
nity Music Therapy sought to expand the context of practice not just
by changing its location, but also by redefining the operational goals
and theoretical premises of the approach. Ultimately this required
a re-branding of this practice to distinguish it from their experi-
ence of existing music therapy practice frameworks (Ansdell, 2002;
Baines and Danko, 2010; Baines, 2000; Pavlicevic and Ansdell,
2004; Stige and Aaro, 2012; Stige, 2002). All three aforementioned
models utilize a politicized client-centered approach involving a
social justice critique. However, as with the term, “Feminist”, each
model struggles with a semantic lack of clarity with its’ title due
to the usage of generalizable and politicized terms, leaving the
model easily misunderstood or worse, misappropriated. Rather
than empowering the client, this muddled semantic can actually
leave the client under-informed about the music therapy service
that is being offered. My perspective and concerns about these
“muddled semantics” will be explored further through a brief crit-
ical analysis of the term, Community Music Therapy.
Community Music Therapy experienced resurgence in inter-
est in the latter part of the twentieth century. This increased
attention resulted in significant publication and dialogue to define
the territory (Ansdell, 2002; Baines and Danko, 2010; Baines,
2000; Bunt, 1994; Gaston, 1968; Kenny and Stige, 2002; Pavlicevic
and Ansdell, 2004; Stige and Aaro, 2012; Stige, 2002). In 1997, I
4 S. Baines / The Arts in Psychotherapy 40 (2013) 1–5
initiated a Music Therapy program using a Feminist Analysis to
inform a Community model of Music Therapy Practice. My paper
describing this approach and program was published in the Cana-
dian Journal for Music Therapy in 2000 and then re-published the
article in Voices in Baines (2003). Subsequently, numerous arti-
cles and books have been written on the topic and a struggle
to define the practice has continued (Ansdell, 2002; Kenny and
Stige, 2002; Ruud, 1998; Stige, 2002.) In previous papers, (Baines,
2000/2003 and Baines and Danko, 2010) and numerous presenta-
tions, I too have been a champion for the term “community” to
describe my music therapy practice, to differentiate it from what
can be described as “traditional clinical” awarenesses and attitudes
in music therapy practice. However, continued studies and practice
in this area have led me to inevitably problematize the term, “com-
munity” as inadequate to explain and describe the work that I
undertake.
A group of social workers, Thomas, O’Connor, and Netting (2011)
have described three community social work practice paradigms,
traditional, collaborative, and radical, each with very different
goals. They studied multiple dimensions of practice including “pur-
pose, power, politics, and evaluation standards,” (p. 337) to explore
the significant differences in practice between those using the same
term. This critique of the term, “Community,” in healthcare practice
is echoed frequently in the music therapy literature. For example,
in the 2012 publication, “Invitation to Community Music Therapy,”
Stige and Aaro comprehensively explore the term, “Community”
in the context of Community Music Therapy practice. Despite this
thorough examination, it does not change my contention that the
term, “community” is problematic because of its multiple meanings
and contexts. This approach of defining a term for practice has little
value to anyone but those “in the know”, leaving the term to func-
tion as jargon, rather than revealing the proponents’ aspirations for
a socially just music therapy profession and practice.
This search for increased precision in presenting my work has
ultimately led me to use the descriptor Anti-Oppressive Practice.
Although I would prefer to express my work in positives, the
broad-based general and specific understanding of the term, “Anti-
Oppressive Practice” is clearer than any expression I have yet
encountered. The phrase Anti-Oppressive Practice offers a clear
perspective due to the precision of the words producing a function-
ally more understandable term. It clearly addresses, in its precise
idiolect, the semantics of the practice to which it refer.
How do we “do” anti-oppressive music therapy practice?
Sociologist Victoria Kannen (2008) states, “Forces of oppres-
sion restrain and contain members of marginalized groups by
systematically blocking or penalizing their actions and abilities.
Anti-oppressive work must be understood as that which attempts
to combat/disrupt/subvert/undo oppressive barriers,” (p. 160).
Social Worker Donna Baines (2008) concurs, “An important way to
resist practices that suppress difference and dissent is to constantly
defend and develop ways to give voice to the voiceless and to bring
the needs of marginalized clients and communities to the attention
of decision makers,” (p. 130). To fully embrace the term, “health
care practitioner,” it is our responsibility to use an Anti-Oppressive
Practice analysis to critique the health care service delivery system
and to support our clients to navigate that system to their ultimate
increased health. Simultaneously, it is our job to work to change
that system and other societal oppressive structures that negatively
affect our universal developmental potential.
I have spent more than two decades of mixed music therapy
practice, with children, teens, adults, and elders, in hospi-
tals, schools, corrections, community health spaces, listening to
my clients, honouring their expertise, and responding to their
expression of their best ideas of what will help them musically
both personally and socially. Simultaneously, I continue to seek to
address social inequities on multiple levels including through reg-
ular social action. Donna Baines (2011) offers social workers “six
principles for the activist practitioner” (p. 88), which can equally
be applied to music therapy practice:
1. Be likable! Be charming! Be human!
2. Be good at your job
3. Use your privilege
4. Remember that you are an instrument
5. Build your allies: link with unions and social movements
6. Remember the system wasn’t made for us or by us and we do
not have to prop it up (p. 92).
An example
In 1997, I was asked to volunteer 6 weeks of group music therapy
to initiate a program in a community mental health space. The pro-
posal was, that, by the end of 6 weeks, if a group formed and was
attended regularly by participants who found the program valu-
able, I would be moved from the status of volunteer to contract
employee. For those six weeks, I brought my percussion instru-
ments, my guitar, and CD’s for listening/relaxation. I was likable,
charming, and human. I was good at my job. I responded to the
requests and ideas of the participants, using my privilege to inte-
grate their ideas into the program plans and process. I met with
staff and management to put forward the ideas of the music ther-
apy group participants and to respond to staff and management
ideas and concerns, building allies within the agency. We created
a supportive group that advocated for its members on many lev-
els including supporting user-led mental health services, teaching
and supporting how to navigate the system in terms of housing,
nutrition, and clothing allowances, increasing peer support, and
supporting creativity on many levels. Maintaining a positive atti-
tude through events such as the instruments being locked behind
a construction line, the program moving from room to room based
on the varying current needs of the space, interruptions due to
staff misunderstandings, community member crises, government
cuts and more, I and the participants advocated for weekly music
therapy group until the program was cut in a budgeting choice in
December, 2010, a total of thirteen years. This is the program that
was described in Baines, 2000/2003 and Baines and Danko, 2010.
On the day the program was cut, we met as a group, supported
each other in our loss and vowed to continue to work to continue
to create consumer valued efficacious programs.
Not the Last Word
Music Therapy as an Anti-Oppressive Practice employs the
tenets of AOP, recognizing that the power imbalances in our soci-
ety affect us all. It is a way of addressing the “problems” that our
clients present within the context of their socio-political reality and
resourcing both ourselves, and persons we serve to address social-
inequity toward the goal of creating a socially just future. To this
end, I continue to explore anti-oppressive efficacious accountable
models of music therapy.
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