Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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SECTION I
ENGINEERING
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HARBOUR, DOCK
AND
TUNNEL ENGINEERING
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Vallabh Vidyanagar Series : 7
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ENGINEERI N G
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[AN ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK FOR ENGI!'IEERING STUDENTSJ
by
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R. SRINIV ASAN
H. E., A. M. T. E.
Professor of Civil Engillferillg
AND
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FIRST EDITION
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1958
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First Published: 1958
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.Dedicated sincerely
to
My students
past and present
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FOREWORD
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It gives me great pleasure to write a foreword to this valua-
ble book which has been written by Professor R. Srinivasan
on the subjects of Harbour, Dock and Tunnel Engineering.
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There are a number of books on these subjects which have been
written by many specialists, both on the continent and in the
United States of America. Thes books are more or less reference
books for the us of practising engineers in the profession.
As textbooks for young engineering students, they are of course
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very valuable, when the course calls for a study of fewer subjects
and the syllabus demands detailed study in the subject of specia-
lisation, as in foreign universities. They are also prohibitively
costly for Indian students preparing for the various examinations
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of the universities in India. For such students, this book is
a boon.
The section on Harbour and Dock Engineering is well
divided into ten graded chapters and similarly the section on
Tunnel Engineering into nine graded chapters. Both the
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PREFACE
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A sincere attempt has been made to present the funda-
mentals of this aspect of Engineering, which is rather difficult
to comprehend by a student in engineering and on which text
books as such have not been published. During my long
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experience as a teach!"( on this and allied subjects I have con-
stantly felt this handicap and after very earnest deliberation
decided to offer my humble services to fulfil this deficiency.
In making this attempt 1 was greatly encourag d by the express
wish of my students past and present, who constantly urged on
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me to bring out a textbook on the subject. To all of them
I am thankful. It will nOl be out of place to mention that
the few books there are deal with thc subject matter with parti-
cular reference to existing works and not on general lines as
would be useful to a student. A valiant attempt has now
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engineering.
It is my duty to thallk all my good friends who helped
me to pr pare and bring out this hook. J have to specially
thank Shri P. A. Soni of the B. V. Mahavidyalaya, Anand and
Shri. Miskin of the B. V. B. College, Hubli who meticulously
prepared the numerous sketches that adorn the pages of the
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10 PREFACE
in
esteemed friend, Shd D. Subba Rao, Dean of the Faculty of
Engineering, and Technology, Baroda, has been good enough to
go through the book and has kindly consented to launch it
forward. For this, as well as for his constant advice and guid-
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ance in the preparation of the book I am especially grateful.
I appeal to the readers to send me their constructive
criticisms unhesitatingly. I shall thankfully receive all such
useful suggestions and faithfully apply them to make what I
think is a useful book, more useful.
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Hubli
R. SRINIVASAN
3- 10- 1957
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CONTENTS
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ECTION 1
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CHAPTER PAGE
1. HARBOURS
II. NATURAL PHENOMENA, TIDE , WIND
AND WAVE 7
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III. BREAK WATER . 17
IV. WALL BREAK WATERS. 24
V. DOCKS. ....---: 29
VI. REPAIR DOCKS. 37
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VII. ENTRANCE LOCKS. 49
VIII. Q.UAYS. 56
IX. TRANSIT SHEDS AND WAREHOUSES. 61
X. }& MAINTANANCE DREDGING. 64
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SECTION II
TUNNEL ENGINEERING
1. _,PENERAL ASPECTS . .
11. SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND TUNNELING
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METHODS. --:- 10
III. OTHER METHODS OF TUNNELING IN
SOFT SOILS. 19
IV. COMPRESSED AIR TUNNELING IN
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOILS 30
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V. ,A'UNNELING IN ROCK. 33
V!. _sR"AFTS. ' ~ . 42
,....VI1. _;FU NEL LINING. ~ 48
VIII. ' DRAINAGE OF TUNNELS. ~ 59
IX. TUNNEL VENTILATION AND DUST
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PREVENTION. ~ 61
SYLLABUS 65
INDEX 67
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CHAPTER I
HARBOURS
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As navigation developed, ships felt the necessity
to find shelter during their cruise and thus arose the
creation of havens, where ships could take in and
discharge, passengers and cargo, under protected
conditions. Such a place of refuge is called a Harbour.
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As methods of navigation improved, these vessels
gradually increased in size, number and importance;
then arose the imperative need for providing suitable
and commodious accomodation. Harbours are
broadly classified as: (1 ) Natura! and (2) Artificial.
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to seaward is a good example of a natural roadstead
as shown in fig. 1.
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no.o.o !;Te.6.0
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Natural roadstead.
FIG. 1
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HARBOURS 3
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Artificial roadsteads: (i) These may be
created suitably by constructing a break water or
wall parallel to the coast or curvilinear from the
coast (fig. 3). As an alternative a circumscribed
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Artificial roadstead.
FIG. 3
artificial roadstead could be formed by enclosing a
tract providing good anchorage, by projecting solid
walls called jetties from the shore (fig. 4).
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ROAD :H~AD
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5 II 0 II. ~
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(ii) Another method is to create a confined
basin of small area having a narrow entrance and
exit for ships . Such roadsteads with smaller inner
enclosures and wharf and with loading and unloading
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facilities are commonly provided for fishing vessels
(fig. 5). sp
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Confined basin.
FIG. 5
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HARBOUR 5
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Requirements of commercial harbour:
../ (i) Spacious accommodation for the mercantile
marine.
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(ii) Ample quay space and facilities for trans-
porting, loading and unloading cargo.
(iii) Storage sheds for cargo.
(iv) Good and quick repair facilities to avoid
delay.
(v) More sheltered conditions as loading and
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unloading could be done with advantage in
calmer waters.
Commercial harbours could be situated on coasts
or estuaries of big rivers or even on inland river coasts.
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Size of harbour depends upon the number and
size of ships likely to use the harbour at one time.
Some of the biggest modern ships are 900' to 1000'
long and about a 100' wide and there should be suffi-
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cient area to manoeuvring them, without collision. Thus,
the size is determined by,
(i) Accomodation required.
(ii) Convenience for manoeuvring and naVI-
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gation.
(iii) Adaptability to natural features.
Regarding the entrance width the narrower the
entrance the better is the interior portected, consistent
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with easy and quick entry or exit of the biggest· vessel
using the harbour. Even when the break waters are
high enough to protect the harbour, waves from out-
side the harbour, set up diminutive waves inside the
harbour depending on the entrance widths. The
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h = H {t - .02
4
y'D (1 + Vi)}
""here H is the height in feet of unrestricted wave
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C HAPTER II
NATURAL PHENOMrnNA
TIDES, WIND AND WAVE
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./fhe harbour engineer has to study certain natural
and meteorological phenomena which primarily affect
the location and design of the harbour. They are:
(i) Coastal currents and evidences of silting,
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incluamg Littoral drift or Coast erosion.
(ii) Tides and tidal range.
(iii) Wind, Wave and their combined effect on
Harbour structures.
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8 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING
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the sun and moon. The effect of tides IS to artI-
ficially raise and lower the mean sea level during
certain stated periods. This apparent variation of
mean sea level is known as the tidal range. Allowance
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will have to be made for this variation in designing
and constructing maritime structures; regular tide
charts are prepared for consultation in important
coastal sections.
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Spring tides and Neap tides: Tides, are
well known rises and falls of the surface of the sea and
of some rivers caused by attraction of the Sun and
Moon. There are usually two rises or flood tides and
two falls or ebbs or low tides every 24 hrs. 50 min. (Lunar
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the tides risc and ratl less than at other times and are
then called .Neap (ides. The total height of spring
tides is general y 1i to 2 times as great as that at
neaps.
Waves and wind: The 'sea wave' is by far
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natural phenomena. The formation of storm waves
takes place in the ope~ea, due to the action of wind.
Water waves are of two kinds: viz., waves of
oscillation and waves of translation - the former
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arestationary, while the latter possess forward motion.
But all translatory waves originally start as waves of
oscillation and become translatory by further wind
action. The Harbour engjneer's main concern is
the translatory wave. The wave movement and its
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breaking on the beach or shore is shown in fig. 7.
CQf::"~T G.o.lNIN(i ON
TA.QUG'l
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Wave moment.
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FIG. 7
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rose to 15 feet, but when compressed air started
discharging, the air bubbles broke up the waves into
harmless small ripples.
Also islands and jutting pieces of land divert the
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direction of waves and deflect them into shallow
ground and so break their power of damage (fig. 8).
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Waves cannot attain full height in shallow waters.
No wave can have a height greater than the depth of
water through which it passes. This is the reason
why, intervention of undulations in the bed reduces
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the depth of wave at the section.
\c Length of wave: The length could be defined
as the distance between crests of a wave (fig. 9).
The length influences the force of the wave. It is
difficult to estimate the length in open sea and is
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generally computed by Bertin's formula, as:
t2
L = 27t . g feet
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or L = 5·125 /2 feet.
Where L = length in feet and t is the period in
seconds for two successive waves to pass the same
section.
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ave section: A sea wave when br~aking
against an obstacle or a sea structure gives nse to
various forces, and the more important of these are
as follows:
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(i) A direct horizontal force causing compression.
(ii) A deflected vertical force tending to shear
away any projections on the face of the ~fll.
(iii) A downward vertical force due to tl'ie collapse
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of the wave, which tends the disturb the mound
construction of the foundatiQn and sea bed.
A. Dt-F~"CTr:D u..-llD 'DIKE:'
&. OOWH ....AQO V~TI<.Al. ~( e
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C. A.e-TU~H SU<TIOti fORCe-
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FIG. lO(a)
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These forces have been diagramatically shown
in fig. 10 acting on a sea wall with a rubble mound
foundation.
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Applying these fundamental forces in designing
sea walls or break waters, they give risc to the follow-
ing phenomena:
"'__( i) A powerful momentary impact combined
with a hydrostatic pressure for a short: period.
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(ii) A vibratory effect on the whole structure.
(iii) Impulses imparted to the water contained
in the joints or pore3 producing internal pressures in
various directions.
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The rate of dissipation of momentum = wv
_. X v
g
wv 2
g
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Therefore the reaction of the surface on which the
. wv 2 •
wave stnkes = - = p the pressure on umt sur-
g
face •............................... . ...... . . (1)
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(a) In deep water.:
When the depth of water is great compared to
the length of wave, velocity is atmost equal to that
caused by a freely falling body through a height
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equal to half the radius of the circle the circumference
of which constitutes the length of wave. Thus, velocity
v= 1/ 2g l
r 27t
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Hence if the depth is taken in terms of height of
wave as equivalent to 31l, 2h or Il, then corresponding
values of p is 3wh, 2wh or wh respectively.
!
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A it compression:
/' The maximum , internal pressure on an impri-
soned all' column in - the po!,es or crevices of
structures" wili be' equal' to as much 'as 3:5
times the pressure of water on the face of the wall
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or structure. In crevices or open joints in maso-
nry structures, this disruptive force, when repeated
constantly, has a powerful damaging effect. But
where such sea walls or break waters are co.n.s.truct.ed
of the mound type the air compression is greatly
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PRE':55UQfc
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FIG. II
A notable example to illustrate the incredjble
-..ana unpredictable damage caused by sea wave~ , is
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that of Genoa harbour, where during a severe storm
considerable damage and destruction was caused.
The harbour at that time had a masonry break
water (fig. 12) roughly of the shape of letter Z in
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plan, and a mile and half in length. The 'fetch'
in the ' area is nearly 600 miles and the storm waves
rose nearly 25' high. In the first section the waves
had sucked away the boulder protection for a length
of 800' exposing the foundation completely sweeping
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the apron stones each weighing about 40 tons a dis-
tance of 160 feet away from the wall.
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C HAP T E R III
BREAK WATERS
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_./ Br eak wat er: The protective barrier construged
to enclose harbours, and to keep t e harbour waters \
undisturbed by the effect of heav and tron seas
are called break waters. Such a construction makes
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it possible to use the area thus enclosed as a safe
anchorage for ships and to facilitate loading of cargo
in comparatively calm waters.
Sometimes the inner side of a break water is
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constructed as a Quay for cargo handling and is
known as a Mole.
"...-elassification of break waters: Break waters
are classified mainly into: (i) heap or mound break
water, (ii) mound with superstructure and (iii) upright
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water level. Protection is also very necessary to
the top of the mound and outer, or exposed face.
Methods of protection:
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(a) Dumping heavy blocks of concrete on top
and on front face. This to a great extent resists
~~=l'==
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Concrete blocks on top and frot face.
FIG. 13
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~-------.'OC o·':""·----.-,,.--__
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BREAK WATERS 19
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set in cement mortar reduc s the · erosive action of
the waves.
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Top protection by granite paving .
FIG. 15
• r E R.IO~
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Mound formation.
FIG. 16
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20 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING
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A solid superstructure consisting of a Quay
protected by a parapet on the sea face is construc-
ted on top of the rubble mound (fig. 17). Such a con-
struction is founded about low water level. The
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~dvantages of such a construction are,
PARAPe'T
I NTtRIOR
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(a)
It provides a platform for handling cargo.
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BREAK WATERS 21
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waters this type, IS very economical In mound mate-
rial (fig. 18).
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1--- - - -- - - - 1 9 1 '_0 " - - - - - -_ _ _...
Mound with superstructure founded below L.W L.
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FlG. 18
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(1) ( Barge ) method: Special barges with flat
bottoms and .-f1oppers with vertical sides and doors
at the bottom opening outwards are used. The
hoppers are loaded with rubble, and the barge is
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adjusted and aligned in position along the line of
construction and the load is discharged by opening
the hopper doors (fig. 19). Rubble should be
evenly distributed over the entire width of base of the
break water mound. The layers are trimmed and
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rectified to the correct section by divers.
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LoooR llf:'LD tly <II""N~. '
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BREAK WATERS 23
opportunity for a uniform depositing, simultaneously
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over a large area.
A - OMPARTMENTS CO"'~I"'ING
~TE.R &AlLAST '
~=tl A A A
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,Decked barge.
FIG. 20.
A :J±±
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~2 ) Staging method,' A series of piles are driven
at regular intervals of 15' to 20' and connected by
longitudinal runners, struts and braces (fig. 21 ) forming
a number of parallel tracks for tipping waggons to
move on rails. These tracks are well above the high
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Cross-section of staging.
FIG. 21
(3) Low level method,' This consists in forming a
length of mound from the shore, well above the
high sea level and using this for laying tracks and
running tipping waggons on this solid break water
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C HAP T E R IV
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These are regularly designed as structures sub-
jected to forces causing failure in the following ways:
-0 ) By the shearing of bed joints or by sliding
of one block against the other.
1 ii) By overturning as a solid mass .
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/ (iii) By the uplifting of horizontal layers.
iiv) By fracture.
I. Shearing of bed joints due to horizontal
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been found to be about 2·8 tons/sq. ft. at mean sea
level, taking the average wave size as 26' (fig. 22).
ot.
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f.2-2 TOH3-j
Horizon tal force 011 sea-wall.
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FIG. 22
m. Uplifting: It. 1 due to wave action or wave
force underneath a mas. The only opposing force to
eliminate this is the weight of the masonry, which
thus is a simple case of equal and opposite forces.
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~
:J
Dovetail Masonn' Joggle joint Dowel joint.
(a ) . (b ) (c)
Joints in Blocks.
• FIC. 23
This type of break water construction is suited to
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26 HARBOUR AN D D OCK ENGI NEERING
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Advantages: (i) Reduces the amount of material.
/' (ii) Avoids dangers of unequal settle-
ment, as in the case of mound.
ot.
Disadvantages: (i) Involves building a good height
/ of wall und er water.
(ii) Calls for special care and costly
methods of construction.
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A typical section of upright wall break water is
shown in fig. 24.
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crete wall is constructed. Jute cloth protects concrete
during passage through water, and the cement mortar
oozing out of the pores of the bags forms the morter
joints (fig. 25 ).
TB ot.
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~ _l!-•.~~~""'"
JUTr:- e,.o.G5 F-ILlt-O WIT-Il CONCRf-Tt-
r:-IG>1ING 50 TONS TO 100 TON:I.
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1l-·- ---.4""o·.()I:-"-~·I
___.....-METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION:
_./
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J ot.
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!
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.9
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(Lu4lTtl ~ :W~ ~.
a,a\ .:d" T"" ..... "u,a t;,IU.(U)
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CHAPTER V
DOCKS
ot.
/ . Docks arc enclosed areas for berthing ships,
to keep them afloat at a uniform level, to facilitate
loading and unloading cargo.
Harbours are prone to be affected by tides, which
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may cause changes in the water level. If at low tides
the level is sufficient as not to ground the ships, the
ships could be berthed in these areas.
Thus, in ports on the open sea coast protected by
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an outlyigg_ breakwater, basins are formed within
its sl1eher fig. T. In these basins, quay walls are
projected at right angles to the shore alongside
which vessels can lie and discharge their cargoes.
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Docks or ~_docks are enclosed and are shut
off by entrances or locks to maintain a fairly uniform
level of water, and basins are partially enclosed areas
of water, which are apprmrched by open entrances
ot.
and are subject to fluctuations of levels, due to
tidal variations. These are also known as tidal basins
(e.g. Mediteranean sea) .
•
The permissible tidal range is about 15'-0".
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Advantages of tidal basins:
./
(1) Vessels can come 1ll and berth or leave at
all times.
(2) Costly arrangements like lock gates are not
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required.
Advantages qf wet docks:
../ (1) Uniform level of water is maintained which
is very convenient ' for handling cargo.
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DOCKS 31
in
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-tf STIlAIGIlT
Q.UAY
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. eo ... SIN
-T-e:--"'---- -V
r---e,-Q-e--..-II--- W-
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\.__ _ _ _ _ _ _--'-_ _ _ _-'_
O U T LYIHG
r.RI':""'~ "'6.TE-~ TO
SUt"l Te-~ 1!>.~lIi
FIG. 29
(ii) Diamond shape : For the same perpen-
dicular distance between the long sides, the long
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sides could be conveniently extented (fig. 30) .
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•
f-tHQAN'f:-
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.~ DOCKS 33
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yther aspects:
(1) Availability of fresh water to replace leakage
and fouled water from docks. In inland ports sepa-
rate canal from the rivers will have to be drawn for
ot.
this purpose, if alternate sources of supply are not
available. In the case of sea coast docks the sea water
could be used for cleaning and replenishing the dock.
(2) Approaches must be sheltered and of sufficient
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depth. In many cases both on the open sea coast
I or in inland docks, the approach channel has to
frequently dredged (fig. 27 ).
In certain ports, docks could be approched only
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at high tides as the approach channel cannot be
navigated at low tides.
Design and construction of basin or dock walls:
Design loads:
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TO Q~~T !)UI'PII'IG .
FIG. 32
These walls are designed as gravity retaining wall
sections. It should satisfy the following conditions:
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34 HARBOUR AND DOCK RNGlNEER ING
in
(1 ) Dock empty to withstand pressure of back fill.
(2) Dock full with back fill removed.
(3) Thickness at top should be sufficient to resist
the shock of contact with ships.
ot.
(4) Dock walls have to carry additional con~
centrated loads like crane foundations, and
capstans or bollard fixtures for mooring ships.
(5) Surcharge loads in the shape of loaded vehicles
or trains on the quay adjacent to the wall.
sp
(fig. 32).
Other aspects of construction details:
(i) Basin walls have to be of mu~h. gre~t
og
height than dock walls to allow for the vanatIOn In
water levels due to tides.
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Sliding caisson.
FIC . 33
(ii) As the water level has to be kept constant
vi
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DOCKS 35
in
(iii ) The front [ace is generally straight or has
a very slight batter for ships to stand close to the wall .
(iv) Thc front face is given a granite fending
ot.
surface or timber or steel fender to protec t the face
of the wall from abrasion of ships.
(v) lvlaterial for construction: Dock walls are
constructed of m.asonry, b rickwork or concrete or a
combination of these materials (with construction
sp
joints as in the case of concrete walls).
Dock entrances: Docks are entered either
directly or through Jocks. In either case gates are
provided for the dock entrances . The types of gates
og
used are:
(1) Wooden or Iron gates as are adopted for
locks.
(2) Caissons.
.bl
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in
This type does not require any gate recess or machinery
for moving (fig. 34). .
ot.
sp
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Ship caIsson.
FIG. 34
Sizes of dock entrances: The width of
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2 TON CII"'N~
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1-,,'-1
FIG. 35
Fig. 35 illustrates a typical dock and other
apurtenances like crane, sheds etc. in the proximets.
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C HAP T E R VI
REPAIR DOCKS
ot.
~epair docks are necessary for the execution of
repaIrs, cleaning and painting of ships' bottom.
Hence these docks and docking arrangements should
be such as to expose, the ship's exterior fully and keep
it out of water ~uring the progress of repairs or reno-
sp
vation . . There are generally four classes of such
docks viz:
1. Graving or dry dock.
2. Floating dock.
og
3. Marine railway.
4. Lift docks.
__./·Graving or Dry dC!£.k: The graving dock,
also known as a dry dock is a long, excavated chamber,
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(
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are of granite to withstand heavy wear.. Suitable
culverts are also provided in the side walls for filling
and emptying the dock.
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. + 1/
16
~AG f>oLTS f~
sp
K eel block.
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.bl
FIG. 36(b )
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REPAIR DOCKS 39
in
/ Method of Dry docking: The ship enters
the dock on adjusting the water level inside the dock
to that outsid~" when the entrance gate is closed.
The water inside the dock is now pumped out by
ot.
powerful pumps, the ship being kept vertical a nd
central by the shores between the ship's sides and
alter steps while slowly being lowered on to the keel
and bilge blocks on which it comes to rest.
__.......-
Size of dock: The size of a dock depends on
sp
the size of the largest ship it has to dry dock. Dry
docks to handle modern big ships have to be 1,000 ft.
in length, with an entrance width of 80 ft. to 100 ft.
The ratio of length to breadth of modern ocean liners
og
are about 9·5 to 1. One of the world's biggest dry
docks is built in British Columbi,a. The Esquimalt
dry dock has a length of 1150 ft. and breadth of
135 ft. It is constructed of concrete, with granite
altars. The pumping plant consists of 3 pumps of
.bl
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7. In addition to this if there is a strong breeze
blowing during dry docking operations, the
shores on the leeward side of the ship will
be subjected to wind stresses.
ot.
For purposes of design the following conditions
of loading are to be investigated.
Dock em.pty: The floor is subjected to heavy
uplift, which will be considerably more than the
weight of the floor itself. This unbalanced excess
sp
load is transmitted to the side walls, by "actual"
or "virtual" inverted arch action, and being resisted
by the weight of the side wall and the horizontal
pressures behind it (fig. 37).
og
The weight of a ship resting on the empty dock
floor, adds concentrated loads along the centre line
of the floor. Heavy reinforced floor sections may
become necessary if the soil is soft or yielding, as
intensity of this load may reach as high as 75 tons to
.bl
I FIG. 37 '
Dock filled with water: This condition imposes
the greatest load on the foundation . The horizontal
pressures behind the side wall are moreor less resisted
by the water pressure inside the dock. The inverted
arch action of the floor will be absent under this
vi
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REPAIR DOCKS 41
in
Scheme of constructing dry docks : Very
careful thought has to be bestowed on the effects of
horizontal eartl;l and hydrostatic pressur s as well
as uplift pressures during the construction of docks.
ot.
The sequence of construction should be 0 manipu-
lated as to ensure the stability of the structur during
construction. The following ~cheme in this respect
is noteworthy: (fig. 37).
(i) Site is partly excavated and portion marked
sp
a of the side wall is built.
(ii) The core h is excavated to lay the floor in
short lengths and the outer section el , el , are laid,
leaving the core in betwee n. By so doing only small
og
work.
D esi gn of d ry dock fl.oor : The floor of the
dry dock ~ustains loads both from above and below
under critical conditions like that of the floor of locks,
and floor thickness has to be carefully designed. A
simple numerical example will make this aspect very
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a reversal of the original conditions. Of course this
upward pressure is to be taken up by the virtual invert-
ed arch or actual constructed flat ar<;h_m:__the floor.
In practice it has been found quite sufficientiocteSign
ot.
the floor thickness, to accommodate an inverted
arch of about 6 ft. thickness and t rise, adding up to
an actual floor thickness of 16 ft. to satisfy all the
afore-mentioned conditions.
It would also be necessary to construct the side
sp
wall and the floor as independent sections considering
the divergent effect of the forces on them. It could
be also noticed that constructing the floor slab in
sections aids in its action as an inverted flat arch to
og
resist the upward pressure.
Keel and Bilge blocks: Keel block consists
of hard wood blocks of very large dimensions. A
number of blocks are so spaced along the centre line
of the dry dock floor, to afford sufficient bearing to
.bl
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REPAIR DOCKS 43
in
position and berthed; the dock is raised bodily with
the berthed ship by unballasting the chambers by
pumping out the water.
Types of floating docks : There are three
ot.
important types that have been developed VIZ:
(i) Rigid type or non-self docking.
(ii) Self docking type.
(iii) Self docking offshore type.
sp
Rigid type: In this type the side walls are
rigidly fixed to the pontoon or bottom section (fig.
38). The floor portion is divided into a number of
chambers, so as to assist in canting the dock if neces-
sary to berth listing ships, by partial unballasting
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of the chamber.
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SIDE
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ONTOON
Rigid type floating dock.
FIG. 38
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44 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING
in
thirdly an end section is seen being docked on the
other two.
- -- I
-~
L ____________ ..i,
... ,
1.. _____________ -'
vi
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REPAIR DOCKS 45
in
cross-section. The side wall is connected to the shore
· by hinged parallel booms capable of lifting 01: lower-
ing the dock. The ship to be docked, could be
brought on to the dock from either end or sideways.
ot.
The dock is longitudinally made into two sections,
so as to dock one half on the other. . Th dock and
the self docking operation is illustrated in fig. 40.
This type of dock is convenient in a sheltered situation
and adaptible for being attached to river fJuays.
sp
Design c onsiderations: The design of float-
ing docks has to be considered in respect of two condi-
tions, viz:
og
(i) When loaded with a ship: The transverse
strength of the structure should be sufficient to
e1'l_flble the buoyancy of the side walls and the side
sections of the pontoon to carry the concentrated
load of the ship along the longitudinal central axis
.bl
of the floor.
(ii) When unloaded and floating: The tr; nsverse
strength should be sufficient to support the weight of
the side walls and other heavy machinery carried by
or on the side walls, like pumping units, cranes, etc.
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.._Advantages of floating dry dock:
( (i) It is cheaper in initial and working cost!,.
/' (ii) It could be constructed in half the time
ot.
( it takes to construct a graving dock of the
same capacity.
~iii) It has the advantage of mobility and
could be transferred from port to port.
sp
(iv) I t could be trimmed to take a damaged
and listing ship, which it could not be
possible to tow through the entrance of a
graving dock.
..(v) It has no elaborate entrance or gate ar
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rangements.
structible.
/ (ii) Upkeep and maintenance are more since
a floating dry dock itself is a large floating
vessel and needs dry docking, cleaning,
painting etc.
lda
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REPAIR DOCKS 47
in
track and the track itself supported on an unyielding
and firm foundation or pile foundations.
The cradle or platform (fig . 41) is constructed
ot.
sp
og
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Enlarged mid-section .
FIG. 41
of steel and provided with keel and bilge blocks to
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in
the- cradle1and positioned to rest and moored to the
towers on either side of the cradle. The cradle slowly
emerges above the H . Water level, when hauled up the
ways, permitting the ship to come to rest, on the
ot.
cradle floor as the cable reaches the normal docking
position.
The use of this type of dock is no doubt economi-
cal but is limited to vessels of not more than 5000
tons. In modern naval practice this type is yielding
sp
place to graving docks and floating docks which have
become popular.
_ / ' Lift dry. dock: These are substantially constru-
cted platforms capable of being lowered into and
og
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CHAPTER VII
ENTRANCE LOCKS
ot.
Locks giving access to docks resemble In prin-
ciple river or canal locks.
The lock consists of a chamber, enclosed by quay
walls on each side and is JJaved at the bottom by f!:.n irlJp-
sp
ted ar§}_l flooring, to resist the upward water pressure,
When the lock level is low. This floor abuts against
the side walls, protecting them against sHding due
to earth pressure when lock is empty or has a low
level of water. The gates closing the entranc are
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Plan of lock.
FIG. 42
Lock foundations: Foundations have to be
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50 HARBOUR AND DOCK ENGINEERING
in
vessel using the lock and dock. Modern locks have
widths varying from 80' and above and depth 25'
to 40' and lengths of 800' and over. Fig. 43 shows
ot.
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Cross-section of lock.
FIG. 43(b)
vi
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ENTRANCE LOCKS 51
in
Construction of Lock Gates:
Material: The gates are made generally In
pairs and are of,
(a ) Wood, and
ot.
(b) Iron.
Wooden gates: They consist of a series of
horizontal beams of green heart, (plain or fram d)
spaced closer towards the bottom to resist the water
sp
pressure, and joined together by a heel post and meet-
ing post at the two extremities and uprights in th
middle. Over the beams are fixed close sheeting
of boards on the inner face (fig. 44). -
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t-,,~
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in
reduced towards the bottom to withstand the increas-
ing water pressure (fig. 45 ).
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sp
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Lock gates.
FIG. 45
to bear are,
(1) a tl"ansverse stress due to the water pressure
against the inner face, increasing with
the depth of water;
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ENTRANCE LOCKS 53
in
The reaction at either end of AB = ~L.
The reaction at the meeting post will be hori zontal
and in the direction AO.
ot.
sp
og
FlO . 46
Thus,
L OAB = L OBA
and L OBA = L ABe
2n
tas
tan ABC = S.
The component of heel reaction along AB
=
wL cot
- 0:
2
wL S
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of the gate will be increased, which will increase the
transverse stress due to water pressure on the gate.
This will also increase the length of the lock. A
good compromise is achieved by adopting a rise of
ot.
i or i·
Shape of gates: The shape of gates in plan
have an important bearing on the strength of gates.
Gates are usually straight or curved.
sp
The straight gate is subjected to forces as discussed
previously and have to be designed accordingly.
The curyed gate is strong against the transverse
water pressure, and on account of the arched shape,
og
the transverse stress gets decreased as the curvature
increases and the two gates together form a circular
arch, when the transverse stress is completely changed
tol ongitudinal compression. Thus, the stress becomes
wholly compressive. This of course varies with the
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ENTRANCE LOCKS 55
~
in
These rollers are provided with roller paths on the
gate floor (fig. 47 ).
ot.
sp
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C 'I APT ERVIn
QUAYS
ot.
Platforms or landing places are necessary for
ships to come close enough to the shore, for purposes
of rembarkatiQn;' disembarkation etc., at the same
time. These platform locations should give suffi-
cient depth of water for the ship to float. Such
sp
platforms are called WharVtH. They are built out into
or on to the water. Wharves along and parallel to
the shore are .generally called Quays and their protec-
tion walls are called quay walls (fig. 48. )
og
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tas
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Quay walls.
FIG. 48
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QUAYS 57
in
Factors affecting the design are:
(1) Character of foundation.
(2) Horizontal pressure to be provided for.
ot.
Quay walls are designed _similar to retaining
walls but on the water side they are subject to varying
water pressure (owing to level variations due to tides),
and on the land side, ~rth and containe water
pre~ ures, with proper allowances for surcharge.
sp
Forces on quay wall: (fig. 49).
og
-H
.J....
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t---..L!:oI:.Il....-_ _
t-----4
Water pressure =
W h2
+
Earth pressure
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Combined pressure
where ,Wl = weight of 1 c.ft. of sea water.
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w 2 = weight of 1 c.ft. of earth behind the wall.
cj> = angle of repose of the earth.
h = height of wall.
ot.
(2) Overturning moment: It is caused by the mo-
ment of differential head. Consider a unit length of wall.
Total equivalent liquid pressure (W ) acts at a height
i on the shore side and water pressure (w) acts at
sp
a height ~ on the waterside, at low level.
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Q_UAYS 59
in
(iii) Timber lattice work jetties carried on iron
piles or cylinders provide the cheapest form of
quays, during the initial stages of port development.
ot.
sp
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COHCR~T~ 81.00:..
, 01'4 ,,",OUHD
.
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. .. .. - '..
' . .... .. .
QQCY C:cx a;r j t r-c
Solid quay wall.
FIG. 51
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Maritime quay walls must be extended into deep
water for vessels of the largest displacem ent , such
depths varying from 25' to 36'.
ot.
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OM PIL ~S
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PILI:.S
DRIVEf'I TO HARD :STRATA.
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CHAPTER IX
ot.
Transit sheds : These are the sheds of one
or two storeys in height, the floor area being devoted
to the handling and distribution of incoming and
outgoing cargo requiring protection and used for
sp
storage of cargo for a short time. Hence these
should be capable of affording flood space for
storage of incoming cargo and accumulation of cargo
ready for loading into the vessel (fig. 54) .
og
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Transit shed.
FlO. 54
Construction requirements:
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Other requirements:
(1) Should be adjacent to the quay.
(2) Should have big capacity for storing
ot.
incoming and outgoing cargo at the
same time.
(3) Provision of road and rail for quick
transit of cargo.
(4) Equipment like portable cranes for
sp
handling cargo should be adequate.
Fig. 54 shows a typical transit shed constructed
of steel and ~f large dimensions (width 180' inside).
og
Roadway runs through the shed; and railways lines
run on the quay and behind the shed. The maxi-
mum capacities, floor area and quay space with res-
pect to each running foot length of quay are the prime
factors to be considered. For the shed shown in the
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in
floor levels refreigeration plants for cold storage etc.,
have to be put in. Loading and unloading arrang -
ot.
sp
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Ware house.
FIG. 55
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CHAPTER X
MAINTENANCE DREDGING
ot.
Dredging is defined as "excavating under water".
This excavation is carried out to increase the depth
of waterway to provide sufficient draft for ships , in
harbours, entrances to docks etc. Actions of waves
and tides, tend to deposit sand and silt within mari- I.
sp
time enclosures and navigable rivers. During ebb "-
tides a certain amount of scouring takes place but
stil1 a large deposit remains uncleared reducing the
navigable depths.
og
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MAINTENANCE DREDGING 65
in
will now be given.
Dipper dredge: It consists of a floating vessel
strongly constructed, carrying an inclined 'A frame
ot.
in the bow to hold the boom B by guy wires.
Through the middle of the boom runs a dipper stick,
worked by a rack and pinnion arrangement and to
the end of which is rigidly attached the dipper bucket
K, with a flap. A hoist cable is fixed to the bucket,
sp
to move it up or down. The vessel is fixed to the
bed in position by means of three stakes during the
dredging operations. The boom B could swing
horizontally, at the bow.
og
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tas
Dipper dredge.
FlO. 56
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in
termined place, by opening the flap. The boom is
swung back, and the dipper lowered , in preparation
for the next cut.
Advantages oj dipper dredge:
ot.
")- (1) Easy manouverability and hence suitable
for use in confined spaces around docks and narrow
channels.
(2) Very powerful and capable of excavating
sp
in hard soil, for removal of boulders, and breaking
up of heavy objects like old piles, cribs etc. This type
of dredge, can dig in depths upto 50' of water and
the dipper capacity varies from 1 to 5 c. yds. normally.
og
These types of dredges of heavy capacities of about 15
c. yds. are in use in the Panama canal.
Grapple dredge : It consists of a substantial hull,
to the front of which are fixed an 'A' frame and a
boom B. The 'A' frame is guyed back, by back legs.
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Grapple dredge.
vi
FIG. 57
boom is fixed at the required elevation by means
of a guy wire and arranged to rotate through a hori-
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MAINTENANCE DREDGING 67
in
zontal angle on a pivot at the lower end. The bucket
hoisting lines pass over two main sheaves fixed to the
upper end of the boom. The dredge is moored by the
f \
ot.
help of stakes fixed fore and aft.
Operation: Mter positioning the dredge, a co
is brought along side and tied fast to it, on the right
side. The bucket is lowered to the bottom, where it
bites the bed and fills itself. Then tension is put on
sp
the closing cable, which closes the bucket, hoists the
load and swings the boom horizontally to the right.
When the boom reaches over to the scow, the tension
in the cables are reversed, and this results in the
opening and discharging of the bucket and the boom
og
30 c.yds.
This dredge is very efficient and suitable fo
dredging materials, like sand, clay or mud, but no
good for hard diggings. The bed dredged by a gra
will seldom be even and will exibit pits and high spots.
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The size of these vessels is about 2DD...fr.. in length
and 50 ft . in width, having a draft of about 8 ft . to
10ft. These can be used for digging depths of ~.._.._
to 40 ft. The average digging capacity of such a
ot.
sp
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MAINTENANCE DREDGING 69
in
hind the dredging vessel. The cutter is suspended
from a frame in front and the vessel is moored by
anchors. The cutter rotates, cuts and loosens the
soil for quick and easy suction by the pump. The
ot.
cut up material is well churned in the operation, and
mixed with water to facilitate suction.
sp
og
FIG. 59
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3
:1
H ydrau lic or Suction Dredge.
tas
FIG. 59 (b)
Sea going dredges of this type have a size varying (
from 150 ft. to 450 ft. in length and 30 ft. to 50 ft. in
width. The digging depths vary from 15 to 50 ft.
The machinery is operated either by stearn power or ,'\
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ot.
sp
og
.bl
tas
lda
vi
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ot.
sp
ECTION II
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TUNNEL ENGINEERING
.bl
tas
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vi
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ot.
sp
og
.bl
tas
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vi
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CHAPTER
GENERAL ASPECTS
ot.
TUlmel are underground pas age used for
transportation. They ould be used for carrying freights
and passengers, water, sewage gas te. The m thods
involved are underground operations known as Tunnel
driving and the ground surfac is not disturb d.
sp
,)r' Advantages of tunneling : There are rnany
factors that make a tunnel more advantageous than
other means, viz.,
(i) Tunnels are more e onorni al than open
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4 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
Generally when depth of cut IS over 60 feet
tunneling is advisable.
Tunnel approaches: 'Ihese _ a!_e 0 en cuts_at
tither ends. The cost depends on th e topography.
ot.
The approach is ver short (see fig. 1) .in case _ of
sp
""'",ItP-"C!If I- APP~AC; H-to:i
Short approach Long approach.
FIG. 1
steep hill slopes and ver Ion when the hill slo e
IS very flat. A~ ver high altitudes t e approac es
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b c
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GENERAL ASPECTS 5
in
(3) As nearly level as 0'2% gradient may be
given to provide effective drainage in the tunnel.
(4) In Ion tunnels it is better to giv_e t
::ising from each en towards the centre. [se-e- .....__.,.';-r'
ot.
(5) But, ventilation will be more effective if th
grade is all in one lrection:- - .
unnel surveying: A brief description of the
type of survey and the instruments usually used will
sp
be given. Mainl the work ~ nsists qf alignment
of the centre line_ on the surface_, its transfer into th
tunnel and good levelli ng work on tne surface and
inside the tunnel.
og
(1) First a preliminary location survey is done,
followed by a very precise resurvey of the line on th
surface.
(2) As tunnel excavation is carried. out from
each end 'face, . as also from. several intermediate shaft
.bl
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6 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
encountered extra care is necessary to avoid errors.
The practice is to make back sights and, foresight
equal as far as possible to neutralise and minimise
errors due to mal-adjustments of the instrument.
ot.
(7) Horizontal distances are measured by:
(i) Stepping or (ii ) inclined sights.
Cumulative errors arc avoided by applying neces-
sary checks and corrections to the steel tapes, for
sp
tension and temperature.
Curved line survey and alignment (see fig. 2)' :
\
og
~ \
\
\ T"'N G EN 1.
\
\
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\ C \ HEADING . '
\ \
C'ENTI?E. LINt: OF'
TU ~N E'"
\
\
I
\
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I I
r I
I
I
I
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vi
o
Centre line on curve~
FlO. 2
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GENERAL ASPECTS 7
in
(1 ) The heading contains short tangents to the
curved line like ab, be, cd etc.,
(2) To locate the centre line · offsets from these
tangents are set off.
ot.
(3) When heading has proceeded upto x y, align
points like n on the tangents . Set off the calcu-
lated offset n 0 to intersect the centre line at 0, on
the heading.
sp
(4) Centre line has to be transferred thus after
each blasting of the heading face.
_ / ' Transfering centre line into the tunnel:
;Phis is a work needing the utmost care and accuracy
og
in execution, as otherwis~ the centre line worked
from opposite faces will not meet, and deviations in
the centre line will cause overbreaking and additional
expenditure, especially, when the material tunnelled
through happens to be hard rock.
.bl
FIG. 3
opposite faces of the shaft, to transfer two points from
the centre line on the surface, vertically down. The
Ci
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8 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
over grooves cut on pipes fixed, across the mouth of
the shaft. The wire of each plumb bob is wound
over a reel and released to the required length to the
bottom of the shaft. Once the bottom is reached,
ot.
these plumb bobs are replaCtd by a pair of extra
heavy ones made of angle iron, to keep the wires steady.
As a further precaution against the wires oscillating
or vibrating, the heavy plumb bobs are kept immersed
in a pail of oil (fig. 3) placed on the shaft floor. The
sp
line joining these two piano wires is fixed and extended
by a theodolite placed in the shaft (as shown in the
figure ) on to a point on the roof of the heading and
indicated on spuds or dogs fixed to the roof. A
og
corresponding point is similarly located on the roof of
the opposite face. The centre line is then marked on
the floor of the shaft with reference to the roof points
and is extended through the tunnel.
>~ ransfer of tunnel grade: Grade levels
.bl
I
from tunnel portals are carried into the tunnel in the
ordinary way, but transferring levels from the surface
to the shaft bottom, the same piano wire and plumb bob
equipment is used . wo marks are made on the
wire one at the top and the other below, 5 feet above
tas
on the side wall of the tunnel and the floor levels are
then transferred and continued from this B.M.
'V Design of shape and size: ~a e of tunnel
, ' cross-section is gQV rned by the nature an type of
groun penetrated . wliile size IS argely controlled
by the use to w lch the tunn IS pu .
vi
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GENERAL ASPECTS 9
in
and at I he same time rovides the greatest cross-
area Sor the e~ameter. But this section
ot. 8
sp
Arch with ~t raight sides. Horse shoe section. Circular section.
og
Shapes for tunnel cross-sections.
FIG. 4
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in
CHAPTER n
CLASSIFICATION AND TUNNELING
METHODS
ot.
/ Methods employed vary with the kind of soil
penetrated. Mainly soils are classified as (1) hard
rock or fully self supporting and (2) soft soils, requir-
ing temporary supports during and after construction.
sp
The soft soils are further classified as:
(a ) Running ground, needing instant support
alround. Water bearing sands and similar
cohesion-less soils come under this
og
classification.
(b ) Soft ground needing instant support for roof,
like soft clay soil.
(c) Firm ground wherein the roof will stand
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in
I. F orepoling method: This is
only s_yst m which could _pe a v cated
ground and similar soils: The process is slow and
tedious requiring skilled miners. Iunne s 01 small
ot.
dimentions, Tor laying sewers, gas pipes etc., at ordinary
depths, could advantageously be constructed by this
method. It is very important that the sequence of
operations has to be strictly adhered to, in the correct
order.
sp
Sequence of operations jor a 5' X 5' tunnel in running
ground (see fig. 5 (a) and (b) :
( 1) A shaft is sunk from surface to the grade
level and properly protected with timber heeting .
og
..
"14''w Ir-- , ~ .. ~3
., .,
- 5P'lf. 7. f( GO It 5-6.
~ ~ TR s
~~
S H
~ .i iWii .w
i
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FIG. 5(a)
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Forepoling method.
FIG. 5(b)
(2) A wooden bent properly braced is set up
a few inches from the sheeting.
vi
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12 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
figure, 3 inches apart above the cap, and another
line of holes below the cap.
(4) A piece of sheeting above the cap is cut
out along the top line of holes.
ot.
(S) Forepoles or 'spiles' consIstmg of planks
Sf X 6" X 2" with wedge ends are entered one at
a time and driven through the cut, into the ground
for half their lengths with an upward inclination of
sp
2" per foot. This inclination is very important to
prevent fouling of spiles.
A few spiles are also started on the sides,
flaring out with a slope of Ii" per foot.
og
(6) After all the roof and part of side spiles are
driven to half their lengths, a timber is laid across
the back ends of the spiles and by wedging this down,
the front ends of spiles are cantilevered up.
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in
the forward cap and relieving the temporary support-
ing beam.
(12 ) The 18" breast board is now extended to
the grade level by adding new sheets. The side spiles
ot.
are secured to this by cleats. This new brest board
acts as the sheeting for the next set of operations.
The sequence of operations are illustrated III
fig. 5.
sp
II. Needle beam method: This method is
suitable for soils, in which the roof could be depended
upon to stand for a few minutes without support.
By this method 10' to 12' length per day could be
og
advanced.
The needle beam consists of a stout timber beam
or a composite fEtched beam (see fig. 6) and forms
the main temporary support during the excavation.
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f---- - - - 1tJ·rf
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14 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
(3) After this drift is completed the needle
beam, which is about 16' long is slowly skidded for-
ward into the monkey drift.
(4) The front end of the needle beam rests on
ot.
planks on the floor of the drift, while the rear end
is carried on stout posts resting on the floor lining •
of the tunnel. A trench jack is now placed on the
centre line of the needle beam to support the seg-
ment, thus transferring the roof load to the needle •
sp
beam.
(5) The other trench jacks are removed and
the drift is widened side-ways and supported as before,
by 1aggings , segments and trench jacks supported on
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in
The sill boards are now advanced after
the grade level.
fixed between the
ot.
sp
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Case method.
FIG. 7
IV. The American method: This is a method
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.
, .'.,
\ \~
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'~. ~
I , / ./
~, \ " II
I. .....L ....-'?,
I
t.-V~~PO!lT -"/_j_/
I
~~ -t.. J
American method.
vi
FIG. 8
(2) Sides of the drift are now widened and
supported on shoulder segment timbers and struts
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16 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
mg.
(3) Wall plates of 16 feet lengths are introduced
at the springing, supporting the arch set 'omposed
ot.
of the segments, which are connected Sll i Lably by
dowels at their ends.
(4) The wall plates are then under pinned b y
introducing props or vertical posts at intervals.
(5) The timber arch segment, and roof load
sp
are thus transferred to the wall plate and posts for
support, relieving the timber support in the top
drift, which are now removed.
(6) Sides and benching are more full y cleared
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English method.
FIG. 9
. (3) Widening of the. heading is thcll done as
vi
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in
(4) The extended sill is underpinned and sup-
ports are introduced, the entire arch now being carried
on the longitudinal crown bars.
This method involves the use of a lot of timber
ot.
and frequent shifting of heavy timber logs back and
forth is the greatest disadvantage of this method.
VI. Belgian method: This is a popular
method and is suitable for all classes of moderately
sp
firm or hard soils. Fig. 10 indicates the sequence of
operations.
(1) A top centre heading, for the full rise of the
arch abc d is driven and supported by crown bars,
posts and laggings, similar to the English method. Th e
og
d .$l~~ C
lda
Belgian method.
FIG. 10
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18 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
(5) The alternating spaces between shores are
then cleared and the supporting side masonry is built.
The shoring is now removed, and the space filled
ot.
with masonry. The invert is then constructed.
The advantage of this method lies in the use of
lighter sections of timber, as the timber is used closely.
But the disadvantage is due to the system of under-
pinning of the built arch, particularly when the
sp
avoidable subsidence of the soil may take place,
causing settlement and cracks in the arch masonry
og
.bl
tas
lda
vi
Ci
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in
CHAPTER III
ot.
SOFT SOILS
PLAIN
Do 0 0 oQf
1--16"---1
COJ::R UGA,-CD
f-- I~~
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20 TUNNEL ENOINEERTNO
in
The ribs are generally spliced near the crown and
on the flanges as the web connects the liner flanges .
All bolts and nuts, for splicing stiffeners or connecting
liner plates and stiffeners should be made of the same
ot.
size for convenience.
sp
Liners with stiffening ribs.
Flo. 12 (a)
The thickness of liner plates used are as follows
and vary with the diameter of the tunnel. For 6' to 7'
og
diameter tunnel, i" thick and used without stiffeners.
For 8' to 10' diameter tunnel, t" thick and used without
stiffeners. For 10' diameter and above, i " thick with
R.S. beams at 16" centres as stiffeners.
Use of liner plates without ribs:
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\ I
\ ~
\ e.d1"'IIIIf l"'~PLATt5 /
"''l" j ~~./
' ~ , ::.:..:.:::.: ......::: -,-
Tunneling with liner plates.
FlO. l2 (b)
vi
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in
set. Trench braces may be used if need be for , support
in case soil exerts pressure.
(3) Top drift is extended for a total length of
ot.
three liner prates or 48", and widened sideways as
before.
(4) Excavation is continued sideways to the
springing line.
(5) Now, wall plates are carefully introduced
sp
with tightening wedges under the last liner plates,
which are spiked to' the wall plates.
(6) The trench braces if used, are now removed,
leaving the liner plate arch to support the roof.
og
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22 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
pressure grouted (25Ib.jsq.") using good cement mortar.
This is accomplished through 1t" dia. holes tapped in
the liner plates and only semi-dry grout should be used
to minimise leakage through the liner joints and it has
ot.
also the advantage of stopping water leaks in the soil.
Shield tunneling: Shield consists of a circular
steel ring with a transverse diaphragm. The essential
parts of a shield are the Hood, Tail, Cutting edges
and Propelling jacks (see fig. 13).
sp
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in
(iv) Propelling jacks are powerful hydraulic
jacks attached principally along the centre line of the
central ring beam of the shield. These jacks are equally
spaced, react against the i'm mediately completed lining
ot.
and push the shield forward, cutting the soil.
Port holes are also provided in the diaphragm
which could be opened out to permit the rpuck to flow
into the completed portion, aft of the ~hield. The
shield is strengthened by a circular box girder carrying
sp
the skin and there are horizontal and vertic al box
girders to stiffen this ring beam. Such a heavy con-
struction is very necessary to meet unexpected resistance
from soil, specially when the design data availabl e is
og
meagre. Precedent in such design s will be a vital
guide.
Shields have been mostly used for tunnel work
in France, U.K. and U.S.A. for tunneling under
rivers, for tube railways etc. These tunnels are, through
.bl
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TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
Steering the shield: Forward propulsion of
the shield is accomplished by the thrust of the jacks
against the primary lining immediately behind. The
primary lining should be firmly erected and bolted
ot.
up, to withstand this thrust initially, when only one
or two primary linings would have been erected. As
the work progresses, more and more number of rings
get added and provide sufficient weight and stability
for the forward reaction of the shield. As the lining is
sp
.,
L' ~ I...l
,-
A ,A. f'RI"'I,A,R( L,,. IHCO
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A
~ A Z . SHIr.LD
II
F-
:s
./ fii ~
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"
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in
The method consists in forcing air under suitable
pressure into an enclosed space like a tunnel heading,
to force back percolating water or water mixed soil
and thus stabilise the area of excavation.
ot.
Equipment: The following equipment IS
necessary for this method:
(i) Air lock and accessories.
(ii ) Bulkhead to fix the air lock.
sp
(iii) Safety measures during emergency.
(iv) Air compressor.
1. Air lock : It is a long air tight cylindrical
steel chamber, with two doors, one at each end and
og
both opening inwards. These door openings are
provided with gaskets to keep them air tight when
closed. The lock is provided with necessary valves to
adjust the air pressure inside it to atmospheric or
tunnel working pressure. A 4" diameter bulls eye is
.bl
FIG. 15
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TUNNEL ENGINEERING '
in
partition wall experiences very heavy pressure and
has to be designed and constructed strong enough to
resist it. It is generally constructed of thick concrete
ot.
or steel, and well keyed into the arch lining of the
tunnel as a protection against slipping. The lock is
fixed with the inn er end flush with the bulkhead
face on the working side to avoid compression due
to compressed air pressure inside of the tunnel.
sp
3. Blow line: It consists of a 4" dia. pressure
pipe running from the tunnel-heading to the outside.
It is provided with a valve near the inner end and is
normally used to exaust fouled air from the heading.
In case water collects on the floor of the working face
og
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in
locos running on track, to assist transport of material
and removal of excavated material from the heading.
The latter is generally made large enough to hold the
passage of one full shift labour in or out of the working
ot.
face to conserve the use of compressed air.
ceeded.
(ii) Decompression back to normal air pressure
should be gradual.
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28 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
In large tunnels, it could be observed (fig. 17)
that if P is~the pressure at the tunnel axis and the air
pressure in;the tunnel is made equal to it, then there
A
ot.
I
~I P·3
f_.,
L?4' ~-----+------
I
1
I-!:_' ~
sp
1 p
I
,--
I P. l
p
I---~----P
I P+l
og
1- - -
p
I P+z
1----
L _ ~+3'
--'-----~-------
P+3
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in
lb.fsq". and due to a similar excess of the hydrostatic
head or the air pressure at the floor, there will be an
inflow into the tunnel under a head of 10 ft. The
main objective is to conserve the air pressure and
ot.
generally enough air pressure to support at the crown
is us.e d, while the percolation, due to the unbalanced
pressure is dealt with by well points and other means.
sp
og
.bl
tas
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vi
Ci
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C HA P T E R IV
in
COMPRESSED AIR TUNNELING IN
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOILS
ot.
1. Clay: This is an ideal soil for tunneling
by compressed air methods. As the tunnel work
proceeds the lining work should follow in its wake to
minimise the effect of subsidence. For a tunnel
driven at a depth of h ft. below surface level, the crown
sp
pressure will be wh lb./sq. ft. if w is the wt. of the
overburden clay per c.ft. To support this we would
.
reqUIre 44 Ib . /sq ". aIr
Twh . pressure IllS
··d I e t h e tunne.I
og
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in
boards are used for the face work and liner plates in
conjunction for the crown and floor, while concreting
follows as a permanent lining (fig. 19.)
ot.
sp
Compressed air in saturated sand.
FIG. 19
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ADDITIONAL NOTES ON COMPRESSED AIR TUNNELING
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32 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
bed forming a blanket, about 150 ft. wide and 10 ft.
to 12 ft. thick, over the affected area and some distance
ahead of it. Within the tunnel, ev.ery effort should
be made to concentrate on maintaining full air supply
ot.
by directing all supply into the tunnel. The escapes
should then be methodically tackled and plugged
which of course is a very hard and laborious job.
Fire hazard: The excess oxygen in compressed
air greatly increases this danger, which becomes very
sp
difficult to control, once it starts. Inflamable materi-
als going into the tunnel should be a minimum, and
smoking should be strictly prohibited. 'Velding
operations should be well controlled. Proper fire
fighting apparatus should be installed and in sufficient
og
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CHAPTER V ~
in
TUNNELING IN ROCK
..,.,General: Tunneling in rock is mostly an opera-
tion that has to be carried out at considerable depth
below the natural ground surface, the work being carri-
ot.
ed out in hilly tracts. The economics of such a means
of communication is obvious as it greatly reduces
costly rock cutting and reduces distances. Such
tunnels have been constructed with advantage for
carrying railway, water, highway and for diversion
sp
of water from one valley to another across the inter-
vening ridge. Compared to soft soil tunneling, the
operation is very costly and it is imperative that great
care has to be exercised in accurately carrying out the
og
work. Even the slightest deviation will entail enor-
mous waste of money. Also any over cutting will
entail great expenditure in re-sectioning .
. Rock is a material which is self supporting and
does not require much timbering or other types of
.bl
FIG. 20
_., (1) System. of vertical shafts: On the tunnel
line at suitable points shafts are sunk (see fig. 20).
Ci
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34 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
are possible 2n plus 2 faces of attack are available.
/ (2) System. of pilot tunnels: Sometimes it
may be found that a lateral or horizontal approach
ot.
to the tunnel line may be closer and shorter com-
pared to the deep vertical shafts (fig. 21 ). In such
circumstances a tunnel of small size called a pilot
sp
og
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TUNNELING IN ROCK 35
in
The sequence IS illustrated in fig. 22.
t- '-f7
I
" 2
I----~ ,
1
1 ' \j
2 '0 \
.
, ,
: I
I 3 I
I '
sp
I I
I_ - - - - - - - - - - __ -'
CRoss SEC TION
Drift method.
FIG. 22
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,
..I
,r
r -l
,,
_L ____ _ _______ ____ _
Benching,
FIG. 23
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36 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
~
fact that as the enlarging and benching work com-
in
mences, mucking tracks have to be shifted fre uently
from bench to bench. But the advan ages are tHat
elaborate supporting platforms are not necessary for
ot.
drilling operations, and during heading work, muck-
ing work goes on undisturbed. The main feature I
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TUNNEUNO IN ROOK 37
in
/Mucking: uckin means of the
~blasted debris from !he tunnel jnt r' a_gooQ_
distance outside the tunnel ent nee n all · ig
tunnel constructions this is to be reckoned as a m~
ot.
item of expenditure ,an ex_peditious and efficient _
remova of muck, considerably minimises the working
~ Tippmg waggons run on temporary tracks,
carry the blasted material from or near the 'working
face', to the entrance through the formed tunnel.
sp
Loading and unloading these waggons are carried
out by mannual labour. Self tipping waggons, in
conjunction with modern muck handling machinery
like power shovels are also employed in recent practice.
og
Other aspects.
1. Drilling: Preliminary to charging and
firing the blast for rock excavation, effective pattern
of blast holes have to be drilled . On this pattern
depends the yield.
.bl
~Ii
tas
.& __
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38 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
a good yield results by a cut hole inclined at 45 0 to
the face. A pair of such holes act as if actually
grabbing the material in between and pulling
it out. In short the cut holes start the break and
ot.
the burden is gradually loosened and breaks up with
the help of other holes, called "easers" and "lifters".
In positioning the holes another important factor to
be borne in mind is that if a charge is placed equi-
distant from two faces at right angles, it will break
sp
out 2·25 times as much as on a single face. If
three faces are involved the yield will be 3t times
that on one face. The foregoing factors are very
important in devising the pattern for the drill holes.
Two important patterns, based on these facts are
og
indicated here.
Drill-hole patterns:
(1) Pyramidal cut pattern.
(2) Centre cut pattern.
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FIG. 26
are the "lifi rs" at the bottom and back holes at top,
(iii) both of which are called "~'. - On the
Ci
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TUNNELINO IN ROOK 39
in
sides the "side holes", (iv) assist the break. The se-
quence of firing is denoted by these numbers, the
interval being a few seconds.
2. Centre cut 'V'-type cut pattern: In
ot.
this pattern the cut holes are a series of parallel holes
horizontally drilled and slightly inclined (fig. 27 ).
~
0 0 0
3 ~ ~
;l.
0
sp
t I
40 2. a :.":) eDt. Q4
01 t 0
.t. 0::"" c::D 2.-
01 1 0
40 a:::> <": :1> 04
0
Z
3 . ~ ~ 3
0 0 0
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40 TUNNEL ENGINEE1UNO
in
Support for drills: As these drills are very
heavy and very fast, they need rigid and strong supports,
on which they are mounted and directed. These
columns are fabricated out of telescopic steel tubing
ot.
3" to 4t" in diameter and are called 'jumbos' (fig 28).
sp
Use of Jumbos for mounting drills.
FIG. 28
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TUNNELING IN ROCK 41
in
In soft soils, huge earth slides take place without
warning, trapping the workmen. Fire inside the
tunnel is another serious hazard. The principal
measures to increase safety are:
ot.
(I ) Removal of rock protrusions by hammering
immediately in the wake of blasting, known as 'scaling'.
The hammer stroke should sound hard and not hollow;
Hollow sound indicates loose rock.
sp
(2) Isolated big blocks, loosened, but tempo-
rarily perched should be promptly propped up, and
afterwards safely cleared.
(3) If soft strata is traversed, the roof should
og
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CHAPTER VI
in
SHAFTS
ot.
ground surface down to the tunnel roof. They afford
manifold advantages and uses in constructing tunnels.
When the position and course of the tunnel are correctly
aligned and accordingly set out on the surface, shafts
are sunk at suitable points on this tunnel line to aid
sp
tunneling operations.
Advantages of shafts:
./
(l ) They greatly expedite the work by adding
og
two faces per shaft for driving.
(2) They afford outlets for excavated material
and means of access into the tunnel for building
materials.
(3) They could be used as pumping shafts in
.bl
are useful for exhausting smoke and foul air out of the
tunnel.
Shafts in rock: The operation consists of
(i) drilling and blasting and (ii) mucking. Themethod
of excavation conforms to that of tunneling in hard
lda
rock.
1. DrilliDg: The centre cut or pyramidal cut
pattern of drill holes is adopted. In the case of large
shafts stepping is resorted to, to facilitate mucking
and drilling to go on simultaneously. Fig. 29 indicates
these details.
vi
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SHAFTS 43
in
is shown in fig. 30. Twin buckets could be used so
that as one rises the other descends. The explosive
,,
ot.
.>------
sp
Stepping in shafts.
FlO. 29
charge should be so controlled that the blasted pieces
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weigh between 20 lb. and 200 Ibs. for easy handling.
.bl
tas
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TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
are sealed off by cement grouting. When pumping
has to be resorted to, "sinking pump" is used, slung
from the lowest timber set. The pump should be
dIsconnected and hoisted up before commencing
ot.
blasting.
sp
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PLAN
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11 Iii , 1m mel ~.
~
~
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SECTION
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SHAFTS 45
in
more than about 5 ft. diameter. This is subsequently
enlarged.
Shaft sinking in soft ground: The shafts
are not usually very deep, except when driven for
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foundations. Broadly these could be divided into
(i) shallow shafts and (ii ) deep shafts.
(i) Shallow shaft: Method of sinking (fig. 32) :
An open excavation to a suitable depth is first made
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Shallow shafts in soft soil.
FIG. 32
at the site. In this excavation are placed two "timber
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46 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
located and fixed at predesigned depths to withstand
the side pressures.
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modified system of vertical forepolling is resorted to.
Short poling sheets of 5' to 6' are used and driven
flaring out from timber sets and keeping the sheets in
position by double wedges. The arrangement of
sheeting and sets is illustrated in fig. 33.
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FlO. 33
by the formula,
H = K.W.D.
where
H is the horizontal pressure in lbsJsq. ft.
W is the weight of soil in pounds per cubic ft. and
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SH~ 47
in
Soil Value of K
- - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - - - -
Damp clay. ·16
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Moist sand and gravel. ·22
Wet sand. ·34
Coarse gravel. ·60
Water. 1
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For deep foundation work, caissons or wells
have to he sunk in situ.
Precautions in shaft sinking work in soft soils:
1. Avoid general movement of earth behind the
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CHAPTER VII
in
,~UNNEL LINING
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The objects of providing a tunnel with permanent
II mg are manifold.
( ] ) I t gives correct section to the tunnel.
(2) It withstands soil pressure when driven 111
soft soils.
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(3) It reduces losses in friction and erosive action,
and ensures stream line motion, when the
tunnel has to carry water by providing a
smooth passage at good velocity, free from
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turbulance.
(4) J.t forms a good protective covering to
certain types of rocks prone to air slaking.
(5) It keeps the inside of the tunnel free from
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water percolation.
(6) It supports large slabs of rock which might
have become loosened during blasting.
Materials for lining,'
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TUNNEL LINING 49
in
..../'"Stone masonry: It has more or less the same
disadvantages as brick lining and in addition is very
heavy necessitating very strong centres. But is still
used for lining the sides .
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Cement concrete has become the standard
material for tunnel lining in both rock and soft soils.
Its main advantage lies in its plasticity which allows
it to be well packed between the form and the soi l.
The waterproof qualities of cement concrete, makes
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for a first class watertight lining. It could be used to
form an unbroken ring right round, forming a shell.
If unusual soil pressures have to be reckoned with,
the thickness could be controlled and reinforced,
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suitably.
,_,/' Timber: IS one of the oldest lining materials
l' ough of late, it is slowly yielding place to concrete.
It is used both as a temporary support during construc-
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50 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
T = 1)
in
where T = Thickness of lining in inches
and D = Diameter of tunnel in feet.
But this thickness is restricted to a mInImUm of
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9", irrespective of the material used for lining.
Good hard rock is of course self supporting and
needs a nominal lining if properly scaled.
Firm soil is usually considered to exert only a
downward pressure on the arched roof and though
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the sides are lined no great consideration is attached
to the side or horizontal pressures in designing. As
a long tunnel generally passes through varied geological
strata, no hard and fast rule could be prescribed. The
nature and geological structure of the soil met with
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TUNNEL LINING 51
in
together, and approximating to the intended curvature.
At the springing the segments are carried on wal
plates of heavy timber, and supporting posts. The
segments are arranged in three, five or seven piece
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sets and are spaced about .1 feet centre to centre longi-
tudinally. A timber toggle is used between adjacent
sets as a lateral spacer. The whole arrangement is shown
in fig. 35.
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-rOGGL~ DETAIL .
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52 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
Wall plates one under each arch rib. Their tops are
connected to the wall plate by dowels and at the foot
they arc supported on double wedges on blocks .
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../ (iv) Collar braces: These are introduced at
each joint of the arch segment, in the form of toggles
to prevent the segment twisting out of line. The posts
are also provided with horizontal braces, generally in
the centre. The sizes of these braces should not be
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less than 4"x6" .
/ (v) Laggings: These are of 3" to 4" thick
planking laid on top of segments. They should be
placed close, to retain the fill .
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TUN:-IEL LINING 53
in
is divided into three operations corresponding forms
or moulds are used. Thus:
(11 Ground mould is used for Ooor lining or
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invert concreting (fig. 36).
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Ground mould.
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FIG . 36
(2) Leading frame is th name applied to
the side wall form (fig. 37).
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Leading frame.
FIG. 37
(3) Trusses are used as centres for the roof
arch (fig. 38).
1. Ground :mould: It consists of wooden frame
or pattern exactly the form and dimension of the cross-
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54 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
in a restricted space like the tunnel interior.
LAGGING
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Types of centres.
FIG. 38
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TUNNEL LINING 55
in
venience of working (fig. 38). Centres may have to
support roof pressures also in addition to the weight
of the lining and are therefore constructed very
systematically, and properly trussed. Any standard
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method of easing these centres, could be employed,
the more popular one being the use of double wedges.
The curing period for the arch should never be less
than 7 days to 10 days, and easing should never take
place before this period.
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Steel forms and their use:
Two principal types will be explained, VIZ.,
units for the sides and the arch, one following the
other. Side wall concreting is shown in fig. 39(a ) when
from a platform (to which concrete is hoisted by a
vi
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56 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
the arch form unit shown in fig. 39 (b). The arch forms
in
are filled by concrete placers. The form unit in this
method are of the non-telescopic type.
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FIG. 39(b)
(ii) Telescoping forms: The roam ribs are
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TUNNEL LINING 57
in
10 ft. in diameter hand placing is quite satisfactory.
The laggings are arranged wais.t high and the sides
are concreted first. Then gradually the concrete is
lifted for the regions near the crown. The gap in the
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crown section is concreted in the longitudinal direction
or by pressure method. To assist in this, temporarily
a detachable key plate is inserted at the crown, of
sufficient size, with a knock out block at the bottom
(fig. 41 ).
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C' TR I!;S
SET
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58 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
head of steel, through which. the pipe IS passed.
Fig. 42 clearly indicates the process.
Curing concrete: Generally if the humidity
inside the tunnel provides enough moisture for this
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purpose, no further curing may be needed . Otherwise
perforated pipes are fixed to the tunnel roof, through
which water under pressure is sprayed on to the con
crete. If water is not easily procurable in the vicinity
owing to arid conditions, the best method is to spray
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paint the concrete surface with bituminous paints or
other ready made asphaltic compounds immediately
on stripping.
~E ON THE SEQUENCE OF LINING A TUNNEL:
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in
C 11 APT E R VIII
DRAINAGE OF TUNNELS
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In tunnel driving, water comes from two sources;
wash water, used for washing drill holes and ground
water, from the ground through which the tunnel is
driven. Controlling this water consists in preventing
excessive quantities from hindering work and remov-
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ing all the water by suitable means, out of the tunnel.
An exploding charge may open up a ground water
source, unexpectedly admitting a very large quantity
of water into the tunnel.
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ORRUGATED
SH~E T ~ O OF
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60 TUNNEL ENGINEERfNG
in
discharges and stabilise the formation before tunnel-
ing ,approaches this difficult zone.
Removal of water: The quantity of water
that accumulates is collected in sump wells and
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pumped out of the tunnel. When the tunuel is long
it may be necessary to have more than one sump well,
so that from the face, the water could be pumped
into sumps of increasing capacities by a system of
"gathering pumps" and ultimately pumped out of
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a sump well located near the portal. The sump
wells also help in the settlement of solid materials.
Any type of centrifugal pump could be used,
and stand by pumps may have to be provided to
cope up with unexpectedly large inflows. In design-
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FIG. 44
sloping towards th e portals or shafts, from where
they could be pumped out of the tunnel by suitable
pumps.
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in
CHAPTER IX
ot.
Object: It is necessary to provide proper venti-
lation during tunnel construction; the main objects
are threefold,
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( 1) To supply fresh air to the working crew.
(2) To remove injurious and obnoxious fumes
and gases of explosion.
(3) To safely remove the dust caused by drill-
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62 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
(2) Amount of explosive and frequency of
blasting.
(3) Temperature and humidity inside the tunnel.
ot.
Mechanical ventilation : Mechanical ventila-
tion is provided by one or more electric fans or
blowers, which may blow fresh air into a tunnel or
exhaust the dust and foul air from the tunnel. There
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are three systems of ventilation viz:
(1) Blowing.
(2) Exhausting.
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(3) Combination of blowing and exhausting.
Blowing:
Fresh clean air is blown through pipes near to
the working face and as it flows back to the portal
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TUNNEL VENTILATION AND DUST PREVENTION 63
in
ed for 15 to 30 minuites, to immediately remove
the objectionable air, after which, the blowing
system operates for the rest of the working period
to supply fresh air. The reversal of operations
ot.
can be carried out by a valve and duct arrange-
ment as shown in fig. 45. The fan rotates only
in one direction, but the valves A, Band C could
be so manipu.lated either to exaust from or blow
into the tunnel.
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E)(A.U5TII-IG . BLOWING .
Combination of blowing and exausting.
FIG. 45
Dust prevention : The various operations in-
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64 TUNNEL ENGINEERING
in
(1 ) Wet drilling.
(2) Use of vacuum hood.
(3) Use of respirators.
ot.
Wet drilling: Modern drilling machines carry
arrangements by which water could be used to wet
and remove the cuttings, from the drilled holes. This
prevents dust flying, to a considerable extent.
Use of vaCUUDl hood : A hood is fitted around
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the drill steel at the rock face, which is connected to
an exaust pipe, through which the drilled rock dust
is sucked and removed safely out of the tunel (Fig. 46).
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Vacuum hood .
FIG. 46
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SYLLABUS
in
Docks and Harbours:
Action of waves and wind, currents, and br akwaters;
construction of docks and quay walls; construction of wet and
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dry docks. Lock and Jock gates. Transit shed and ware houses.
Tunnel Engineering:
Excavation for deep trenches in waterlogged soils for pipes and
sewers. Tunneling in rock and soft soils. Shield tunneling;
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use of compressed air in tunneling. Shafts and headings. Lining
of Tunnels. Drainage and ventilation of tunnels.
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in
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A.RIClklUlc~L SCI ENCES
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I U.tliUUITY OF
Ui,I\ Eh_'!TY lI JIl..HY . MN 1AlOHE
AccesSlOn No.'?J,t1. ~ ...... .
D.te ...................................... .
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in
INDEX
(Section I)
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A Dredging, maintenance 64
Advantages of tidal basins 30 Dry docking construction 41
Advantages of wet docks 30 Dry docking 39
Air breakwater 9
Air compression 15 E
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Artificial harbour I Entrance locks 49
Artificial roadstead 3 Entrance width of harbour 6
B
F
Barge method 22
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Bonded ware house 62 Floating docks, types 42, 43
reak waters 17 - advantages and
-Classification ]7 disadvantages 46
-heap or mound 17 -design consideration of 45
-method of protection 18 -off shore type 44
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-continuous bucket or L
ladder 66 Lift dry dock 48
-hydraulic or suction. 67
- Littoral drift 7
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68 INDEX
in
Lock foundation 49 Requirement'> of
Lock gates 51,52 - fishing harbour !)
-forces on 52,53 - harbour of refuge 4-
ot.
-shape of 54 - transit sheds 61,62
-working of 55 River ports 30
M s
Marine railway 46 Shape of docks and basins 31
--diamond shape 31
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Mound construction
methods 21 - inclined quays 32
Mound ,,-ith superstructure 19 - rectangular shape 31
Stablility of mounds 21
N Staging method 23, 27
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Natural roadstead T
Natural phenomena 7 Tides, spring and neap 8
o Transit sheds 61
Open berths 29 W
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58,59,60 foundation 27
-joints in 60 Ware houses 61 , 62
Water hammer 15
R 8
"Vater waves
Repair docks classification 37 Water action 12
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INDEX 69
in
(Section If)
Cross-sections, shape of
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A 9
Advantages of tunneling 3 Curve, Central line on 6
Air holding 31
Air lock 25 D
Air pressures 27 Design of thickness oflining 49
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Alignment and grade 4 Ditch for drainage 60
American method of driving Drainage of tunnels 59
10,15 Drift method 34
Approach 4 Drill hole pattern 38
Army method of tunneling 14 Drill types 39
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Drill supports 40
B
Dust prevention 61
Bar drill mounting 40 - Respirator 64
Belgian method of - Vacuum hood system 64
tunneling I7 - Wet drilling 64
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Benching
Blowers 62 E
Bulkhead 25
English method of tunneling 16
c Economics of tunneling 3
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70 INDEX
in
I Rib stiffening 19
Invert lining and mould 53 Rock tunneling methods 33
J s
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Jumbos, for drills 40 Safety precautions 111
tunneling 40
L Shaft sinking in rock 42
Labour in compressed air 27,32 - in soft ground 45
Liner plate method 19,20 - raising 44
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Lining of tunnels 48 -Shaft supports design of 46
-Cast iron or primary 23 Shield
-Concrete lining 52 -construction 22
-Masonry -48 -steering 24
Rules for design of thickness49 Size and shape of tunnels 8
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Top heading 34
Needle beam method of
Tunneling methods
tunneling 13
-soft ground 14
p -R~ck 33,34
Trimsfering centre line 7
Pattern for drill holes 38
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r--;~~:;~~::;-l
in
For students preparing for Engineering Degree examinations
and for the examinationJ of the various professiollal bodies ,'
I •
<
~
S. B. JUNNARKAR:
ot.
ELEMENTS OF APPLIED MECHANICS : Rs. 12·50
MECHANICS OF STRUCTURES Vol. IRs. 15·00
MECHANICS OF STRUCTURES Vol. II Rs . 20·00
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~ V. B. PRIYANI :
I
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING Rs. 15·00
HYDRAULICS Vol. I Rs . 12'50
ROAD ENGINEERING Rs. 7·00
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~ R. SRINIVASAN:
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ENGINEERING Rs . 6·25
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ELEMENTS OF ECONOMICS
(For Engineering Students) Rs. 7·50
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