Lab Exp 1

Theory

Experiment No.1
FLOW THROUGH PIPES
Background and Theory
Pipe flow under pressure is used for a lot of purposes. A fundamental understanding of fluid flow is essential to almost every
industry related with chemical engineering. In the chemical and manufacturing industries, large flow networks are necessary to
achieve continuous transport of products and raw materials from different processing units. This requires a detailed understanding of
fluid flow in pipes. Energy input to the gas or liquid is needed to make it flow through the pipe. This energy input is needed because
there is frictional energy loss (also called frictional head loss or frictional pressure drop) due to the friction between the fluid and the
pipe wall and internal friction within the fluid. In pipe flow substantial energy is lost due to frictional resistances.

One of the most common problem in fluid mechanics is the estimation of this pressure loss. Calculating pressure losses is
necessary for determining the appropriate size pump. Knowledge of the magnitude of frictional losses is of great importance because
it determines the power requirements of the pump forcing the fluid through the pipe. For example, in refining and petrochemical
industries, these losses have to be calculated accurately to determine where booster pumps have to be placed when pumping crude
oil or other fluids in pipes to distances thousands of kilometres away.

Pipe losses in a piping system result from a number of system characteristics, which include among others; pipe friction, changes
in direction of flow, obstructions in flow path, and sudden or gradual changes in the cross-section and shape of flow path.

In this experiment, pressure loss measurements are made as a function of flowrate on different pipe components namely; a)
straight pipe, (b)globe valve (c) o gate valve (d)an Expander (e)Reducer (f)standard elbow (g) 90 Bend.

Resistance to flow in a pipe

When a fluid flows through a pipe, the internal roughness of the pipe wall can create local eddy currents within the fluid adding
a resistance to flow of the fluid. The velocity profile in a pipe will show that the fluid elements in the center of the pipe will move at a
higher speed than those closer to the wall. . Therefore friction will occur between layers within the fluid. This movement of fluid
elements relative to each other is associated with pressure drop, called frictional losses. Pipes with smooth walls such as glass, copper,
brass and polyethylene have only a small effect on the frictional resistance. Pipes with less smooth walls such as concrete, cast iron
and steel will create larger eddy currents which will sometimes have a significant effect on the frictional resistance. Rougher the inner
wall of the pipe, more will be the pressure loss due to friction.

As the average velocity increases, pressure losses increase. Velocity is directly related to flow rate.
Velocity=Volumetric flow rate /Cross sectional area of the pipe.
An increase or decrease in flow rate will result in a corresponding increase or decrease in velocity. Smaller pipe causes a greater
proportion of the liquid to be in contact with the pipe, which creates friction. Pipe size also affects velocity. Given a constant flow rate,
decreasing pipe size increases the velocity, which increases friction. The friction losses are cumulative as the fluid travels through the
length of pipe. The greater the distance, the greater the friction losses will be. Fluids with a high viscosity will flow more slowly and will
generally not support eddy currents and therefore the internal roughness of the pipe will have no effect on the frictional resistance.
This condition is known as laminar flow.

There are in general three types of fluid flow in pipes

• laminar
• turbulent
• transient
Laminar flow
Laminar flow generally happens when dealing with small pipes , low flow velocities and with highly viscous fluids. At low velocities
fluids tend to flow without lateral mixing,and adjacent layers slide past one another like playing cards. There are neither cross currents
nor eddies. Laminar flow can be regarded as a series of liquid cylinders in the pipe, where the innermost parts flow the fastest, and
the cylinder touching the pipe isn't moving at all.

Turbulent flow
In turbulent flow, the fluid moves erratically in the form of cross currents and eddies. Turbulent flow happens in general at high flow
rates and with larger pipes.
Transitional flow
Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow, with turbulence in the center of the pipe, and laminar flow near the
edges.

Each of these flows behave in different manners in terms of their frictional energy loss while flowing, and have different
equations that predict their behavior.Reynolds studied the conditions under which one type of flow changes into the other and found
that the critical velocity ,at which laminar flow changes into turbulent flow ,depends on four quantities: the diameter of the tube,
viscosity, density and average velocity of the liquid. He found that these four factors can be combined into one group and that the
change in kind of flow occurs at a definite value of the group. The grouping of the variables so found was Reynolds Number( )
.Turbulent or laminar flow is determined by Reynolds Number.

Osbourne Reynolds (1842-1912)

The Reynolds number expresses the ratio of inertial (resistant to change or motion) forces to viscous forces.

(1)

Where D is the diameter of the pipe

is the density of fluid
V is the average velocity of the fluid
is the viscosity of fluid.
The Reynolds number can be written in terms of kinematic viscosity ( η)
= dynamic viscosity / density= / (2)

The Reynolds number is important in analyzing any type of flow when there is substantial velocity gradient (i.e. shear.) It
indicates the relative significance of the viscous effect compared to the inertia effect.

The flow is

• laminar when NRe< 2100

• turbulenttransient when 2100 < N Re< 4000
• transient turbulent when 4000 < NRe

At laminar region,viscous forces are dominant as compared to inertial forces. Under laminar flow condition the pressure drop per unit
length is proportional to the velocity. At transition region, the experimental results are not reproducible. Finally, at turbulent region,
inertial forces are dominant. For turbulent flow, the pressure drop becomes proportional to the velocity raised to a power of 2.

Relationship Between Frictional Head Loss and Frictional Pressure Drop

The energy loss in pipe flow due to friction can be expressed as a pressure drop instead of as a head loss. Chemical and
mechanical engineers often work with pressure drop, whereas civil engineers usually work with head loss. The relationship between
frictional head loss and frictional pressure drop is simply:
(4)

where:
= frictional pressure drop ,
= frictional head loss due to skin friction,
= fluid density,
g = acceleration due to gravity
Head Loss due to skin friction (hfs) can be related to wall shear.

(5)
Where is the shear stress at the wall of the pipe ,L is the length of the pipe and is pressure drop due to friction losses.
is not conveniently determined so the dimensionless friction factor is introduced into the equations.

The Friction Factor It is denoted by f and defined as the ratio of the wall shear stress to the product of the velocity head (V2/2)
and density=

(6)

(7)

Where f is the Fannings friction factor

• Only need L, D, V and f to get friction loss

• Valid for both laminar and turbulent flow
• Valid for Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids
Correlations were made between the fanning friction factor and the Reynolds number for both laminar and turbulent flow in a
variety of pipes.
For laminar flow, first principles can be used to develop a relation between Reynolds number and friction factor. The Hagen-Poiseuille
equation relates the frictional pressure drop to fluid velocity, viscosity, and pipe dimension:

(8)

Equating the pressure drop due to friction in the Hagen-Poiseuille equation given by Eq.8, with the overall pressure drop across the
pipe, and combining with the Fanning equation given by Eq.7, results in relation for laminar flow as
f=16/NRe (9)

A first principle analysis can not be used to develop a relation between friction factor and Reynolds numbers for turbulent flow. A
variety of empirical correlations exist for turbulent flow in smooth pipes. Blasius equations :

(10)

The above correlation is valid for

The Blasius equation is purely an empirical equation and has no theoretical basis, but it is a convenient form for application. The entire
turbulent region can be represented by the von Kármán-Nikuradse equation:

(11)

for Re > 4000, turbulent

It has long been known that in turbulent flow a rough pipe leads to a larger friction factor for a given Reynolds number than a
smooth pipe does. If a rough pipe is smoothed , the friction factor is reduced. When further smoothing brings about no further
reduction in friction factor for a given Reynolds number,the tube is said to be hydraulically smooth.

In turbulent flow, the friction factor, f depends upon the Reynolds number and on the relative roughness of the pipe, k/D,
where, k is the roughness parameter(average roughness height of the pipe) and D is the inner diameter of the pipe. . The general
behavior of turbulent pipe flow in the presence of surface roughness is well established. When k is very small compared to the pipe
diameter D i.e. k/D->0, f depends only on NRe. When k/D is of a significant value, at low NRe , the flow can be considered as in smooth
regime (there is no effect of roughness). As NRe increases, the flow becomes transitionally rough, called as transition regime in which
the friction factor rises above the smooth value and is a function of both k and NRe and as NRe increases more and more, the flow
eventually reaches a fully rough regime in which f is independent of NRe .

In a smooth pipe flow, the viscous sub layer completely submerges the effect of k on the flow. In this case, the friction factor f is
a function of NRe and is independent of the effect of k on the flow. In case of rough pipe flow, the viscous sub layer thickness is very
small when compared to roughness height and thus the flow is dominated by the roughness of the pipe wall and f is the function only
of k/D and is independent of NRe . For design purposes, the frictional characteristics of round pipes,both smooth and rough ,are
summarized by the friction factor chart, which is a log-log plot of Fanning friction factor (f ) vs NRe which is based on Moody’s chart .

Lab Exp 2
Theory
Experiment No.2
FLOW THROUGH FITTINGS
Background and Theory
One of the most common problem in fluid mechanics is the estimation of pressure loss. Calculating pressure losses is necessary for
determining the appropriate size pump. Knowledge of the magnitude of frictional losses is of great importance because it determines
the power requirements of the pump forcing the fluid through the pipe. For example, in refining and petrochemical industries, these
losses have to be calculated accurately to determine where booster pumps have to be placed when pumping crude oil or other fluids
in pipes to distances thousands of kilometres away.

Pipe losses in a piping system result from a number of system characteristics, which include among others; pipe friction, changes in
direction of flow, obstructions in flow path, and sudden or gradual changes in the cross-section and shape of flow path.

Whenever the velocity of a fluid is changed, either in direction or magnitude, by a change in the direction or size of the conduit,
friction additional to the skin friction from flow through the straight pipe is generated. Such friction includes form friction resulting
from vortices which develop when the normal streamlines are disturbed and when boundary-layer separation occurs. The form
friction is due to the obstructions present in the line of flow, it may be due to a bend or a control valve or anything which changes the
course of motion of the flowing fluid.

Fittings and valves also disturb the normal flow lines and cause friction. In short lines with many fittings , the friction loss from the
fittings may be greater than that from the straight pipe.

As in straight pipe, velocity increases through valves and fittings at the expense of head loss. This can be expressed by equation similar
to Equation 1:

(1)

Where V is the average velocity of the pipe leading to fitting. Ke is called the resistance coefficient and is defined as the number of
velocity heads lost due to the valve or fitting. It is a measure of the following pressure losses in a valve or fitting:
• Pipe friction in the inlet and outlet straight portions of the valve or fitting
• Changes in direction of flow path
• Obstructions in the flow path
• Sudden or gradual changes in the cross-section and shape of the flow path

Pipe friction in the inlet and outlet straight portions of the valve or fitting is very small when compared to the other three. Since
friction factor and Reynolds Number are mainly related to pipe friction, Ke can be considered to be independent of both friction factor
and Reynolds Number. Therefore, Ke is treated as a constant for any given valve or fitting under all flow conditions, including laminar
flow. Indeed, experiments showed1 that for a given valve or fitting type, the tendency is for K e to vary only with valve or fitting size.

Pressure losses in fittings is usually represented by equivalent length( Leq). It is is the length of a straight pipe that offers same
resistance to flow as that offered by the fitting. The ratio L/D is equivalent length in pipe diameters of straight pipe that will cause the
same pressure drop or head loss as the valve or fitting under the same flow conditions. The ratio L eq/D is equivalent length in pipe
diameters of straight pipe that will cause the same pressure drop or head loss as the valve or fitting under the same flow conditions.
Friction loss from different fittings in a pipeline ,must be accounted for when calculating friction losses for each section of pipe. Add
the equivalent length of pipe for each fitting or valve that occurs in each section of the pipeline.

Fittings

Globe valve

Gate Valve
90 degree Bend

45 degree elbow

Screwed Fittings - equivalent length in meter

Equivalent length (in meters) of straight pipe for fittings like bends, returns, tees and valves.
Flanged Fittings - equivalent length in meter
Equivalent length (in meters) of straight pipe for fittings like bends, returns, tees and valves.

Lab Exp 3
Theory

Flow through orifice meter

Background and Theory

Flow meters are used in the industry to measure the volumetric flow rate of fluids. Differential pressure type flow
meters (Head flow meters) measure flow rate by introducing a constriction in the flow. The pressure difference caused
by the constriction is correlated to the flow rate using Bernoulli’s theorem.

If a constriction is placed in a pipe carrying a stream of fluid, there will be an increase in velocity, and hence an
increase in kinetic energy, at the point of constriction. From an energy balance as given by Bernoulli’s theorem, there
must be a corresponding reduction in pressure. Rate of discharge from the constriction can be calculated by knowing
this pressure reduction, the area available for flow at the constriction, the density of the fluid and the coefficient of
discharge Cd. Coefficient of discharge is the ratio of actual flow to the theoretical flow and makes allowances for stream
contraction and frictional effects. Venturi meter, orifice meter, and Pitot tube are widely used head flow meters in the
industry. The Pitot-static is often used for measuring the local velocity in pipes or ducts. For measuring flow in enclosed
ducts or channels, the Venturi meter and orifice meters are more convenient and more frequently used. The Venturi is
widely used particularly for large volume liquid and gas flows since it exhibits little pressure loss. However, for smaller
pipes orifice meter is a suitable choice. In order to use any of these devices for measurement it is necessary to
empirically calibrate them. That is, pass a known volume through the meter and note the reading in order to provide a
standard for measuring other quantities.
Orifice meter
An orifice meter is a differential pressure flow meter which reduces the flow area using an orifice plate.
An orifice is a flat plate with a centrally drilled hole machined to a sharp edge. The orifice plate is inserted between two
flanges perpendicularly to the flow, so that the flow passes through the hole with the sharp edge of the orifice pointing
to the upstream. The relationship between flow rate and pressure drop can be determined using Bernoulli’s equation as:

(1)

where, Q is the volumetric flow rate, Ao is the orifice cross sectional area, p 1 and p2 are the pressure measured at the
upstream and downstream and Cd is the discharge coefficient for the orifice .

is the ratio of orifice diameter to the pipe diameter=

is the diameter of the orifice and d p is the pipe diameter.

The fluid contracts and then expands as it moves through the orifice and this results in a pressure drop across the orifice,
which can be measured. The magnitude of the pressure drop can be related to the volumetric flow rate.
An orifice in a pipeline is shown in figure 1 with a manometer for measuring the drop in pressure (differential) as the
fluid passes through the orifice. The minimum cross-sectional area of the jet is known as the “vena contracta.”

How does it work?

As the fluid flows thtough the orifice plate the velocity increases, at the expense of pressure head. The pressure drops
suddenly as the orifice is passed. It continues to drop until the ”vena contracta“ is reached and then gradually increases
until at approximately 5 to 8 diameters downstream a maximum pressure point is reached that will be lower than the
pressure upstream of the orifice. The decrease in pressure as the fluid passes thru the orifice is a result of the increased
velocity of the fluid passing through the reduced area of the orifice. When the velocity decreases as the fluid leaves the
orifice the pressure increases and tends to return to its original level. All of the pressure loss is not recovered because of
friction and turbulence losses in the stream. The pressure drop across the orifice increases when the rate of flow
increases. When there is no flow there is no differential. The differential pressure is proportional to the square of the
velocity, it therefore follows that if all other factors remain constant, then the differential pressure is proportional to the
square of the rate of flow.

Following types of pressure taps can be located for differential pressure measurement:
Corner: pressure taps one each on the upstream and downstream flanges.
Radius taps:One pipe diameter upstream side and one and a half pipe diameter on the downstream side.
Pipe taps: Upstream side- 2.5pipe diameters and downstream side- 8 pipe diameters.
Flange taps: 1” upstream side and 1” downstream side.

The analysis of the flow through a restriction (Figure 2) begins with assuming straight, parallel
stream lines at cross sections 1 and 2, and the absence of energy losses along the streamline from point 1 to point 2.

The objective is to measure the mass flow rate(m) By continuity

Bernoulli’s equation may now be applied to a streamline down the centre of the pipe from a point 1 well upstream of
the restriction to point 2 in the vena contracta of the jet immediately
downstream of the restriction where the streamlines are parallel and the pressure across the duct may therefore be
taken to be uniform:
assuming that the duct is horizontal. Combining (3) with (2) gives

For a real flow through a restriction, the assumptions above do not hold completely. Further, we
cannot easily measure the cross-sectional area of the jet at the vena contracta at cross-section 2 where the streamlines
are parallel. These errors in the idealised analysis are accounted for by
introducing a single, cover all correction factor, the discharge coefficient, Cd, such that

Coefficient of discharge for a given orifice type is a function of the Reynolds number (N Reo) based on orifice diameter and
velocity,and diameter ratio . At Reynolds number greater than about 30000,the coefficients are substantially constant
and independent of .For square edged or sharp edged concentric circular orifices, the value will fall between 0.595 and
0.62 for vena contracta or radius taps for upto 0.8 and for flange taps for upto 0.5

Coefficient of discharge for square edged circular orifices with corner taps[Tuve and Sprenle Instruments(1933)]
In summary, the principal advantages of the orifice plate are

• it is simple and robust

• standards are well established and comprehensive
• plates are cheap
• may be used on gases, liquids and wet mixtures (eg steam)

Its principal drawbacks are

• low dynamic range: maximum to minimum mass flow rates only 4:1 at best
• performance changes with plate damage or build up of dirt.
 • affected by upstream swirl
• large head loss. Because of the large friction losses from the eddies generated by the reexpanding jet below the
vena contracta ,the pressure recovery in an orificemeter is poor.For a value of equal to 0.5, the lost head is
about 73% of the orifice differential.

Comparison of permanent head loss caused by different head meters Orifice plates and flanges

Lab Exp 4

Experiment No.4: Flow through Venturi meter

Background and Theory
Introduction
Flow meters are used in the industry to measure the volumetric flow rate of fluids. Differential pressure type flow meters ( Head
flow meters)measure flow rate by introducing a constriction in the flow. The pressure difference caused by the constriction is
correlated to the flow rate using Bernoulli’s theorem.

If a constriction is placed in a pipe carrying a stream of fuid,there will be an increase in velocity,and hence an increase in kinetic
energy ,at the point of constriction.From an energy balance as given by Bernoulli’s theorem,there must be a corresponding reduction
in pressure.Rate of discharge from the constriction can be calculated by knowing this pressure reduction,the area available for flow at
the constriction ,the density of the fluid and the coefficient of discharge Cd. Coefficient of discharge is the ratio of actual flow to the
theoretical flow and makes allowances for stream contraction and frictional effects. Venturi meter, orifice meter, and Pitot tube are
widely used head flow meters in the industry. The Pitot-static is often used for measuring the local velocity in pipes or ducts. For
measuring flow in enclosed ducts or channels, the Venturi meter and orifice meters are more convenient and more frequently used.
The Venturi is widely used particularly for large volume liquid and gas flows since it exhibits little pressure loss. However, for smaller
pipes orifice meter is a suitable choice. In order to use any of these devices for measurement it is necessary to empirically calibrate
them. That is, pass a known volume through the meter and note the reading in order to provide a standard for measuring other
quantities.

Venturi meter:
One of the disadvantages of orifice meters is the large irreversible pressure loss across the orifice, which results in substantial pumping
costs in case of large diameter pipes. However, the same principle can be exploited with only minimal pressure loss with the use of a
Venturi meter. In this case, the meter consists of a section with both a smooth contraction and a smooth expansion. Because of the
smoothness of the contraction and expansion, the irreversible pressure loss is low. However, in order to obtain a significant
measurable pressure drop, the downstream pressure tap is placed at the “throat” of the meter; i.e., at the point of the smallest
diameter. Venturimeter is used to measure the rate of flow through a pipe. Venturimeter consists of a converging portion, throat and
a diverging portion. The function of the converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid and temporarily lower its static
pressure. The pressure difference between inlet and throat is developed. This pressure difference is correlated to the rate of flow. The
expression for theoretical flow rate is obtained by applying the continuity equation and energy equation at inlet and throat section.

For measuring discharge we should apply Bernoulli’s equation at point 1 and at point 2.The following treatment is limited to
incompressible fluids. Friction is neglected , the meter is assumed to be horizontal and there is no pump. If v 1 and v2 are the average
velocities at point 1 and point 2 respectively and is the density of fluid.

Since

------(1)

Now applying the equation of continuity at both points, we have

------------(2)

--------(3)

--------- (4)
where d1 and d2 are the diameters at point 1(pipe) and at point 2(throat) respectively.

Now putting the value of V2 in the above expression (1) and if =d2/d1, we have

-------- (5)

Q=A2V2-----------(6)

-------- (6)

Qth is the theoretical flow rate as computed from Eq.(6) and applies to frictionless flow of incompressible fluids. Actual flow includes
frictional loss between point 1 and 2.So to account for small friction between points 1 and 2,

-------- (6)

Where CD is called as co-efficient of discharge and it depends upon the type of flow, type of fluid and dimensions of venture tube and
pipe.

-------- (6)

It is the ratio of actual flow rate to the theoretical flow rate.

For a well designed venture the constant CD is about 0.98 for pipe diameters of 2 to 8inches and about 0.99 fro larger sizes.

The equation relating flow rate to pressure drop is

Where CD is the coefficient of discharge for venturimeter.

At is the crosssectional area of the throat and is the ratio of throat diameter to pipe diameter.

For a Venturi,Cd=0.99 for 105 < NRe < 107 is a useful approximation.

The pressure recovery is much better for the venturi meter than for the orifice plate.
The main advantages of the Venturi over the orifice plate are :
• low head loss.Around 90% of the pressure is recovered.
• less affected by upstream flow disturbance
• good performance at higher
• even more robust
• The venturi tube is suitable for clean, dirty and viscous liquid and some slurry services
• self-cleaning
• less affected by erosion
The disadvantages compared to the orifice are :
 • occupies longer length of pipe
• more expensive (manufacture and installation)

Discharge Coefficients against Reynold’s Number (QDtVt/ ) Dt and Vt are the thoat diameter and velocity at the throat respectevily.

Comparison of permanent head loss caused by different head meters Venturimeter

Venturimeter
• Throat to diameter ratio 0.25 to 0.75
• Discharge co-efficient - 0.9 to 1.0
• Made of cast iron, gun metal, stainless steel
 Experiment No.5
Reaction kinetic studies in a batch reactor
Background and Theory

The Batch reactor is the generic term for a type of vessel widely used in the process industries. In a batch
reactor the reactants and the catalyst are placed in the reactor and the reaction is allowed to proceed for a
given time whereupon the mixture of unreacted material together with the products is withdrawn. Provision
for mixing may be required. In an ideal batch reactor, the concentration and temperature are assumed to be
spatially uniform. In practice, the condition can be approximately realized by vigorous agitation or stirring..All
the elements of the fluid spend the same amount of time in the reactor, and hence have the same residence
time. From the viewpoint of thermodynamics, a batch reactor represents a closed system. The steady states of
the batch reactor correspond to states of reaction equilibria.
Batch reactors are simple and needs little supporting equipment, and is therefore ideal for small scale
experimental studies on reaction kinetics. Industrially it is used when relatively small amounts of material are
to treated and when the product demand varies. Batch reactors are often used in the pharmaceutical industry,
where small volumes of high-value products are made.
Researchers typically use a batch reactor to study reaction kinetics under ideal conditions. A batch reactor
can be used to find the reaction rate constant, activation energy and order of the reaction. The data reflect the
intrinsic kinetics for the reaction being investigated.
A typical batch reactor consists of a tank with an agitator and integral heating/cooling system. Liquids and
solids are usually charged via connections in the top cover of the reactor. Vapors and gases also discharge
through connections in the top. Liquids are usually discharged out of the bottom.

The advantages of a batch reactor lies in its versatility. A single vessel can carry out a sequence of different
operations without the need to break containment. This is particularly useful when processing, toxic or highly
potent compounds.

Material balance :
rate of input - rate of output- rate of disappearance = rate of accumulation
A batch reactor has neither inflow nor outflow of reactants or products while the reaction is being carried out.
.The resulting general mole balance on species j is

If the reaction mixture is perfectly mixed so that there is no variation in the reate of reaction throughout the
reactor volume, rj can be taken out of the integral and the mole balance can be written as

Consider an elementary reaction ...aA + bB --> cC + dD

Rate of disappearance of A=-rA=dNA/dt

Where NA is the number of moles in the reactor at any time Consatnt volume conditions can be assumed for
most of the liquid phase reactions or for gas phase reactions with no change in number of moles Then
NA=V*CA where CA is the concentration of A in the reactor.

then -rA=dCA/dt

Then for the reaction given above

Where .... k= rate constant

a is the order of reaction w.r.t A and b is the order w.r.t B. If the order of the reaction w.r.t each reactant are
equal to the stoichiometric coefficients of these reactants, then the reaction is elementary.Else it is non
elementary.
Order and the rate constants of the reaction can be obtained by experiments. Mainly two types of
analysis may be used for rate law determination. (a) Integral method of analysis
(b) Differential method of analysis.
Integral method of analysis
Consider a reaction A+B --> C+D

Assume a rate equation.

Like

where k is the rate constant.

In terms of conversion and using the

Where M=CBo/CAo and XA is the conversion of A.
M is the initial ratio of concentrations of B (C Bo)to A(CAo) in the reactor.
After breakdown into partial fractions,integration and rearrangement, the final result is

Plot

Where ,t= time , M = CBo/CAo,

XA is conversition of A at given time

The above equation is valid for M>1.

If the data points fits well into a straight line then the assumption of second order kinetics is true. The rate
constant may be calculated from the slope of the line .

If M=1 then,

The rate equation may be approximated as

Then the integrated form of the rate equation is

Then plot
If the rate equation assumed is right, then the plot fits well into a straight line with slope=k.
b) Differential method of analysis.
• Hypothesize a rate equation. Let this be . where n is the assumed order.
• Obtain concentration (CA) vs. time data from the batch experiments. Draw C A vs. time. Draw tangents
at various points. Find the slopes. These slopes are dC A/dt are the rates of reaction(-rA) at these
concentrations.
• Taking logs on both sides of the rate equation will give ln(-rA)=lnk+n.

ln(-CA)
• Plot of ln(-rA) vs ln(-CA) will give a straight line with slope n (order) if the assumed form of rate equation
is correct.k may be obtained from the intercept.
The reaction rate, r, is generally dependent on the reactant concentration and the rate constant (k). The
rate constant can be determined by using a known empirical reaction rates that is adjusted for temperature
using the Arrhenius temperature dependence. Generally, as the temperature increases so does the rate at
which the reaction occurs.
Temperature dependency of rate is given by Arrhenius equation.

Where k is the rate constant. k0 is the frequency factor. E is the activation energy, R is the gas constant, T is
the absolute temperature.