Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Title
The Whiteness of Nerds: Superstandard English and Racial Markedness
Permalink
https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0663j2rg
Journal
Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 11(1)
Author
Bucholtz, Mary
Publication Date
2001
Peer reviewed
Anthropological research has shown that identities that are “not white
enough” may be racially marked. Yet marking may also be the result of being
“too white.” California high school students who embrace one such white
identity, nerds, employ a superstandard language variety to reject the youth
culture norm of coolness. These practices also ideologically position nerds as
hyperwhite by distancing them from the African American underpinnings of
European American youth culture.
84
The Whiteness of Nerds 85
One such context is Bay City High School, a large urban high school in
the San Francisco Bay Area where I conducted a year of fieldwork in
86 Journal of Linguistic Anthropology
Ideologies of Style
Judith Irvine and Susan Gal (Irvine in press; Irvine and Gal 2000) have
delineated three semiotic processes through which language ideologies per-
form cultural work: iconization, fractal recursivity, and erasure. Iconization is
the counterpart of indexicality, a semiotic process described in detail by
several linguistic anthropologists (e.g., Ochs 1990; Silverstein 1976). Indexi-
cality involves the establishment of a connection between a linguistic form
and its social significance through the recognition of their repeated conjunc-
tion; although there is no inevitable tie between form and meaning, it even-
tually comes to be seen as inevitable and hence ideological. In iconization,
The Whiteness of Nerds 89
the ideological tie between form and social meaning is stronger still: the
characteristics of a language are seen as a reflection of the essential charac-
teristics of its users. The relationship is therefore not merely one of (per-
ceived) juxtaposition, as in indexicality, but of (perceived) resemblance. The
second process that Irvine and Gal identify, fractal recursivity, also works
by analogy. A linguistic relationship thought to obtain in one kind of social
arrangement (e.g., situation-based register variation) may be replicated in
other arrangements as well, at levels both more general (e.g., interspeaker
dialect variation) and more specific (e.g., intraspeaker stylistic variation)
than the initiating arrangement. Such reiteration of the same semiotic rela-
tionship on different orders of magnitude, akin to fractal geometry, is what
is meant by fractal recursivity. Erasure, the third semiotic process employed
in language ideologies, involves not reproduction but reduction; sociolin-
guistic phenomena that clash with, fail to conform to, or otherwise threaten
a given language ideology may be systematically ignored or denied, stricken
from the ideological record.
Because this framework is semiotic and not exclusively linguistic, it may
be expanded to include the interaction of nonlinguistic and linguistic ide-
ologies as well as the process whereby the former give rise to the latter.
That is, these semiotic processes are operative not only within language
ideologies but also across ideological families, so that ideologies of language
may be mapped onto corresponding ideologies of race, which they support.
The set of language ideologies that this article is concerned with surround
Standard English and its alternatives superstandard English and African
American Vernacular English (AAVE); the set of racial ideologies at issue
involves whiteness and its alternatives hyperwhiteness and blackness.
Through iconization, the (ideologically arrived-at) characteristics of each lan-
guage variety come to typify (and not simply to index) the youth subculture
that uses (or is thought to use) it; through fractal recursivity this mapping
is replicated on the racial level by linking language varieties to racialized
groups; through erasure one such set of mappings is taken as most “basic”
and hence least recognizable—in other words, these mappings are un-
marked.6
Bob turns the task of defining slang terms into a quasi-academic activity by
humorously invoking the format of a spelling bee (state the word, spell it,
restate it). This academic orientation continues in her formal, literal defini-
tion of the term and her allusion to one of her textbooks where the answer
can be found. Through such strategies Bob repeatedly distances herself
from the use of slang while simultaneously invoking discourse genres and
topics associated with intelligence.
Where Bob emphasizes her unfamiliarity with this slang term (even as
she reveals her awareness of it through a marked, “black,” pronunciation,
as discussed below), Erich asserts that the absence of slang in his lexicon is
a matter of preference. As with other people, I asked Erich to comment on
which of the printed slang terms he uses. In response, Erich rejects slang
as a whole while making clear that some of the activities that the words
refer to are relevant to his life:
2. Erich: The idea behind the term fits but the term itself doesn’t- isn’t the
way I prefer it to be. Like “kick back.” I just prefer something- some
normal term. . . . Like “to relax.”. . . Something like that.
3. Claire: When it seems to me that people are really young <i.e., immature>,
it’s like their emotional response to different things just seems
[dZ√st simz] really w-(.) wacked.
Claire’s utterance of the slang term wack(ed) is preceded by a false start and
a brief pause, both signals of some kind of production difficulty. Whether
her hesitance is due to uncertainty about the term or simply its appropri-
ateness in front of me, it highlights the word as unusual for Claire, at least
in this context. Supporting this interpretation is her formal, careful language
The Whiteness of Nerds 91
elsewhere in her turn (such as emotional response and the full articulation of
just seems) and the standardized form of the slang term itself, which more
usually occurred as wack. In adding a Standard English past participial
marker to a word popularized by African American students, then, Claire
reveals that she is not quite as cool as her use of the term might imply. (At
the time of the study, Claire was deliberately trying to become cooler,
mainly by smoking marijuana, while retaining her commitment to nerdy
ideals like intelligence.) What is more, her standardization of African Ameri-
can Vernacular English grammar is not racially neutral: through fractal re-
cursivity, the two variants Claire chooses between are linked to racial cate-
gories. Hence the supercorrect wacked is not only more standard but also
whiter than the original term.
4a. He made up all these rules that he sort o- we sort of voted on and I didn’t
vote on them [DEm] because I wasn’t there that day, and I have to abide by
them [DEm].
4b. They’re going to [go IN tu] have to [hæv tu] change- close off streets . . .
92 Journal of Linguistic Anthropology
6a. I just can’t stand people who have all the outward signs of being an
extremely stupid person.
6b. My observation is that other people think we’re kind of foolish and crazy
for the way we do things.
Erich’s choice of the Latinate intensifier extremely and the nominalized form
observation invests his discourse with a formal, literate tone; additionally, as
in Example 5 both examples invoke a stance of scientific objectivity and de-
tached empiricism, here achieved through such collocations as all the out-
ward signs and My observation is. In Example 7 Claire takes a similar stance in
responding to a question from me about what term she uses for male high-
school students:
7. Claire: I-I-I tend to-to refer to (.) the whole (.) um Y chromosome (.) as a guy.
Claire’s lexical choices are formal: tend, refer. And in invoking the register of
biology (the whole (.) um Y chromosome (.)) she participates in the same nerdy
practice of scientific discourse already exemplified by Erich. The deliberate-
ness of Claire’s choice is suggested by the brief pauses that bracket and
highlight the term. Like Erich, Claire understands our interaction to be a
shared intellectual enterprise, and she repeatedly demonstrates her ability
to engage in the scientific discourse of research. Where her use of slang in
Example 3 above showed a similar linguistic self-awareness, the effect of
this awareness is quite different in each case. The hesitancy in the earlier ex-
ample is not in evidence here. Instead, the pauses preceding and following
the phrase Y chromosome operate like quotation marks, not only emphasiz-
ing the term but also displaying Claire’s consciousness of its markedness.
Her utterance thus also illustrates the process of erasure: in highlighting her
use of superstandard lexis, she implies the existence of an unmarked
(standard) norm. It is at such moments that nerdiness moves from practice
94 Journal of Linguistic Anthropology
By distancing themselves from their cool white peers, nerds at Bay City
High School created an even greater distance between themselves and their
cool black peers. Although nerds did not necessarily understand their lin-
guistic and other social practices in particularly racialized terms, these prac-
tices could take on racialized meaning in the context of the ideological black-
white dichotomy that shaped whiteness for European American students
at Bay City High. Nerdy teenagers’ deliberate avoidance of slang, for ex-
ample, indexically displayed their remoteness from the trends not only of
white youth culture but of black youth culture as well, since African Ameri-
can slang was a primary source of European American slang. While this
was not necessarily an intended consequence, Example 1 provides evidence
that nerds defined themselves in opposition to both coolness and blackness.
Bob first utters the word blood (a term used by many African American
boys at Bay City High) with stereotyped African American Vernacular Eng-
lish phonology and exaggerated intonation: [blq:d]. Her marking of AAVE
speakers in this example expresses the ideological distance between her
identity and that of African American youth. Her return to her normal pro-
nunciation in the second utterance of this word ([bl√d]) coincides with her
attempt to provide a nonslang definition for the term. With this switch,
coolness and blackness are recursively linked to each other and separated
from the world of nerds.
Likewise, if the use of superstandard English worked to separate nerdy
teenagers from their trendy white counterparts who generally spoke a more
colloquial variety of Standard English, it also enforced a division between
white nerds and most black students at Bay City High, who tended to use
AAVE as their primary linguistic variety. The colloquial Standard English
favored by cool white teenagers elided to some extent the structural differ-
ences between itself and AAVE (thereby allowing them a greater linguistic
claim to coolness). Superstandard English, however, reinforced this racial-
ized linguistic divide by exaggerating and highlighting the semiotic ele-
ments of Standard English that distinguish it from nonstandard forms of
African American English.
Nerdy performances of intellectual ability also produced racialized dif-
ference, as suggested by Signithia Fordham’s (1996) ethnographic study of
academically successful students in a black high school. Fordham notes that
The Whiteness of Nerds 95
8. <In response to my question about whether she knows people in the “hip-
hop crowd,” a term she takes to mean “black students.”>
Christine: Well I know them.
I know (.) I know some people.
Which helps to alleviate situations sometimes.
Such sentiments insert a racialized subtext into the linguistic practices and
ideologies that separated nerds from African American youth language and
culture. Nerds’ dismissal of black cultural practices often led them to dis-
count the possibility of friendship with black students. In this sense, nerdy
teenagers’ social freedom in rejecting normative youth identities was
96 Journal of Linguistic Anthropology
Conclusion
Notes
Acknowledgments. I am grateful to Karen Brodkin, John Clark, Alessandro
Duranti, Sara Trechter, and two anonymous reviewers for comments and sugges-
tions. All remaining weaknesses are my own responsibility.
1. For an updating of this model, see the introduction to this issue.
2. Although, as I discuss below, nerds and similar identities exist in other racial-
ized groups, in this article my focus is solely on white nerds. Some of the speakers I
discuss identify as Jewish to varying degrees, but while many Jews understand
themselves to be racially marked by their ethnicity (Modan, this issue), hence “not
quite white,” these teenagers do not discuss their ethnicity in similar terms. It ap-
pears that in the Bay City High School context ethnicity is less salient than a racial-
ized cultural style. However, Brodkin (1998:31) points to the pattern, early in the
twentieth century, of Jewish academic achievement in higher education, “a setting
where disparagement of intellectual pursuits and the gentleman C were badges of
distinction.” Hence there may be a historical white ideology linking Jewishness and
nerdiness, although such an ideology is not operative at Bay City High, except
through ironic exploitation by Jews themselves.
3. While it may be argued that nerds participate in their own version of youth cul-
ture rather than rejecting it altogether, the practices associated with nerdiness are
not primarily associated with youth nor do they perform an age-based identity in
the same way as the practices associated with (dominant) youth culture.
4. All names and identifying information have been changed. Speakers chose
their own pseudonyms.
5. I use the terms superstandard and supercorrect to distinguish between true hy-
percorrect language use (that is, use that violates a rule of descriptive grammar) and
strict adherence to prescriptive grammatical rules accompanied by the use of other
formal language features. As discussed below, however, hypercorrection is often
part of superstandard English.
6. This kind of erasure—in which a powerful group is rendered less available to
scrutiny—is not discussed by Irvine and Gal, who focus on cases of erasure in which
less powerful groups are marginalized. The ideological erasure of subordinated
groups also occurs at Bay City High, as for example in the racial ideology of a black-
white binary, which erases the presence of Asian Americans, Latinos, and other stu-
dents.
7. Transcription conventions are as follows: a period indicates falling intonation;
a question mark indicates rising intonation; a comma indicates fall-rise intonation; a
hyphen indicates a self-interruption that breaks the intonation unit; a dash indicates
a self-interruption that breaks a word; between words, a hyphen indicates rapid
speech; a (.) indicates a pause of less than one-tenth of a second; ellipsis indicates de-
leted text; (xxx) indicates unintelligible speech; hhh indicates laughter; angled
brackets indicate transcriber comments or turns that are not the focus of analysis;
and phonetic transcription appears in square brackets.
8. The resistance to assimilation processes does not, of course, have a single social
meaning. In other contexts, researchers have found that some gay men may also use
careful articulation (Campbell-Kibler et al. in press; Walters cited in Barrett
1997:192) without any apparent association with bookishness. In fact, it is quite un-
likely that careful articulation has only a single meaning even for nerds.
9. It is important to note, however, that contrary to the claims of conservative
commentators like John McWhorter (2000), African American students do not show
any less enthusiasm for school—and in fact may show more—than European
Americans (see Voelkl 1997).
98 Journal of Linguistic Anthropology
References Cited
Barrett, Rusty
1997 The “Homo-Genius” Speech Community. In Queerly Phrased: Language,
Gender, and Sexuality. Anna Livia and Kira Hall, eds. Pp. 181–201. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Bauman, Richard, and Charles L. Briggs
2000 Language Philosophy as Language Ideology: John Locke and Johann
Gottfried Herder. In Regimes of Language: Ideologies, Polities, and Identities.
Paul V. Kroskrity, ed. Pp. 139–204. Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research
Press.
Brodkin, Karen
1998 How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says about Race in America.
New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Bucholtz, Mary
1998 Geek the Girl: Language, Femininity, and Female Nerds. In Gender and Be-
lief Systems: Proceedings of the Fourth Berkeley Women and Language Con-
ference. Natasha Warner, Jocelyn Ahlers, Leela Bilmes, Monica Oliver, Suzanne
Wertheim, and Melinda Chen, eds. Pp. 119–131. Berkeley, CA: Berkeley
Women and Language Group.
1999a “Why Be Normal?”: Language and Identity Practices in a Community of
Nerd Girls. Language in Society 28(2):203–223.
1999b You da Man: Narrating the Racial Other in the Linguistic Production of
White Masculinity. Journal of Sociolinguistics 3(4):443–460.
Campbell-Kibler, Kathryn, Robert J. Podesva, and Sarah J. Roberts
In press Sharing Resources and Indexing Meanings in the Production of Gay
Styles. In Speaking of Sex: Exploring Languages, Desire, and Sexuality.
Kathryn Campbell-Kibler, Robert J. Podesva, Sarah J. Roberts, and Andrew
Wong, eds. Stanford, CA: CSLI Press.
Carter, Ronald
1999 Standard Grammars, Spoken Grammars: Some Educational Implications.
In Standard English: The Widening Debate. Tony Bex and Richard J. Watts, eds.
Pp. 149–166. London: Routledge.
Cheshire, Jenny
1999 Spoken Standard English. In Standard English: The Widening Debate.
Tony Bex and Richard J. Watts, eds. Pp. 129–148. London: Routledge.
Crowley, Tony
1989 Standard English and the Politics of Language. Urbana: University of Illi-
nois Press.
Ervin-Tripp, Susan
1973 The Structure of Communicative Choice. In Language Acquisition and
Communicative Choice. Anwar S. Dil, ed. Pp. 302–373. Stanford, CA: Stanford
University Press.
Fordham, Signithia
1996 Blacked Out: Dilemmas of Race, Identity, and Success at Capital High. Chi-
cago: University of Chicago Press.
Hartigan, John, Jr.
1999 Racial Situations: Class Predicaments of Whiteness in Detroit. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press.
The Whiteness of Nerds 99
Irvine, Judith T.
Forthcoming “Style” as Distinctiveness: The Culture and Ideology of Linguistic
Differentiation. In Stylistic Variation. John R. Rickford and Penelope Eckert,
eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Irvine, Judith T., and Susan Gal
2000 Language Ideology and Linguistic Differentiation. In Regimes of Lan-
guage: Ideologies, Polities, and Identities. Paul V. Kroskrity, ed. Pp. 35–84.
Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press.
Labov, William
1972 The Isolation of Contextual Styles. In Sociolinguistic Patterns. Pp. 70–109.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Lhamon, W. T.
1990 Deliberate Speed: The Origins of a Cultural Style in the American 1950s.
Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Lippi-Green, Rosina
1997 English with an Accent: Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the
United States. New York: Routledge.
Lott, Eric
1993 Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class.
New York: Oxford University Press.
McWhorter, John H.
2000 Losing the Race: Self-Sabotage in Black America. New York: Free Press.
Milroy, James, and Lesley Milroy
1999 Authority in Language: Investigating Standard English. 3rd ed. London:
Routledge.
Morgan, Marcyliena
1998 More than a Mood or an Attitude: Discourse and Verbal Genre in African
American Culture. In The Structure of African American English. Salikoko
Mufwene, John R. Rickford, Guy Bailey, and John Baugh, eds. Pp. 251–281.
New York: Routledge.
Ochs, Elinor
1990 Indexicality and Socialization. In Cultural Psychology: Essays on Com-
parative Human Development. James W. Stigler, Richard A. Shweder, and Gil-
bert Herdt, eds. Pp. 287–308. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Roediger, David R.
1991 The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working
Class. London: Verso.
Rogin, Michael
1996 Blackface, White Noise: Jewish Immigrants in the Hollywood Melting Pot.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
Rose, Tricia
1994 Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary America.
Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press/University Press of New England.
Silverstein, Michael
1976 Shifters, Linguistic Categories, and Cultural Description. In Meaning in
Anthropology. Keith H. Basso and Henry A. Selby, eds. Pp. 11–55. Albuquer-
que: University of New Mexico Press.
1996 Monoglot “Standard” in America: Standardization and Metaphors of Lin-
guistic Hegemony. In The Matrix of Language: Contemporary Linguistic An-
100 Journal of Linguistic Anthropology
thropology. Don Brenneis and Ronald K. S. Macaulay, eds. Pp. 284–306. Boul-
der, CO: Westview Press.
Solomon, R. Patrick
1988 Black Cultural Forms in Schools: A Cross National Comparison. In Class,
Race, and Gender in American Education. Lois Weis, ed. Pp. 249–265. New
York: SUNY Press.
Trubetzkoy, Nicholas
1969 Principles of Phonology. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Voelkl, Kristin E.
1997 Identification with School. American Journal of Education 105(3):294–318.
Department of English
Texas A&M University
TAMU 4227
College Station, TX 77843-4227
bucholtz@tamu.edu