This article was downloaded by: [Bettina Ebert]

On: 05 October 2012, At: 02:39

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer
House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of the Institute of Conservation

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rcon20

Aquazol as a consolidant for matte paint on

Vietnamese paintings
a b b
Bettina Ebert , Brian Singer & Nicky Grimaldi
a
Witness Collection, Menara Maxis, 36th floor, Kuala Lumpur City Centre, Kuala Lumpur,
50088, Malaysia
b
School of Arts and Social Sciences, Northumbria University, Burt Hall, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, NE1 8ST, UK

Version of record first published: 04 Oct 2012.

To cite this article: Bettina Ebert, Brian Singer & Nicky Grimaldi (2012): Aquazol as a consolidant for matte paint on
Vietnamese paintings, Journal of the Institute of Conservation, 35:1, 62-76

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19455224.2012.672813

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to
anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents
will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses
should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions,
claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or
indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
 Journal of the Institute of Conservation
Vol. 35, No. 1, March 2012, 62 –76
Downloaded by [Bettina Ebert] at 02:39 05 October 2012
1 Personal communication with the
artist’s family.
Bettina Ebert, Brian Singer and Nicky Grimaldi
Aquazol as a consolidant for matte paint on
Vietnamese paintings
Keywords
Aquazol; Vietnamese paintings; zinc oxide; zinc sulfates; consolidation; matte paint
This paper discusses the use of Aquazol in the conservation treatment of
two Vietnamese paintings with flaking matte paint.
After extensive testing of consolidants, it seemed that treatment would
not be successful without compromising the paintings’ matte surface
appearance. However, Aquazol was subsequently identified as a poten-
tially suitable consolidant, as well as a medium for filling and retouching.
A detailed study of its characteristics and uses was made before treatment
of the paintings was undertaken.
Condition
Both paintings, Portrait of the Artist’s Wife and Portrait of a Student, were
painted in Hanoi in 1963 by Vietnamese artist Nguyê˜n Trong Kiêm. They
form part of the Witness Collection, a comprehensive private ˙
˙ collection of
contemporary Vietnamese art. The paintings required conservation treat-
ment due to their extremely fragile condition.
The coarse linen supports were probably cut from the same piece of
fabric, and are attached by (now corroded) nails to a strainer. An artist-
applied thin ground layer has sunk into the interstices of the weave.
Portrait of the Artist’s Wife employs a combination of thin paint layers and
thicker areas (Fig. 1). The artist created texture and form by scratching into
the impasto. The painting was disfigured by a discoloured alkyd resin
varnish and a thick dirt layer. Efflorescence was also found to be present.
Despite the presence of a varnish, the painting is very matte in appearance.
Portrait of a Student had been overpainted by the artist in the 1980s,
probably in an attempt to remedy flaking and paint loss (Fig. 2).1 The
unvarnished painting was covered in crystalline efflorescence.
Both paintings were flaking severely. Extensive tenting and blind clea-
vage on Portrait of a Student required treatment. Limited cohesion within
the paint was exacerbated by the high pigment to binder ratio, as well as
the advanced state of deterioration of the binding medium. Consolidation
of the paint layers was crucial for the preservation of the paintings. The
dirt layer needed to be removed from the paint surfaces. Structural
support was required, as well as treatment of surface distortions, filling
of losses and retouching.
Analysis of materials and degradation products
Medium analysis of the ground and paint layers was undertaken by gas
chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS). This revealed that the
ground is bound in casein, with some oil. Visual inspection showed the
ground to be very porous. Pigment analysis indicated that the ground con-
sists predominantly of lithopone (a mixture of zinc sulfide and barium
sulfate). Staining on the verso of the canvas on both paintings suggests
that some binding medium from the paint may have soaked through to
(Received 24 September 2010; Accepted 1 September 2011)
ISSN 1945-5224 print/ISSN 1945-5232 online
# 2012 Icon, The Institute of Conservation
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19455224.2012.672813
http://www.tandfonline.com
 Aquazol as a consolidant for matte paint on Vietnamese paintings 63
Downloaded by [Bettina Ebert] at 02:39 05 October 2012

Fig. 1 Nguyê˜n Trong Kiêm (1933–91), Portrait of the Artist’s Wife, 1963, 57 × 38 cm, W06.4.2,
˙ ˙
before treatment in reflected light. #Witness Collection.

Fig. 2 Nguyê˜n Trong Kiêm, Portrait of a Student, 1963, 53 × 45 cm, W06.1.3, before treatment in
˙ ˙
reflected light. #Witness Collection.

Journal of the Institute of Conservation Vol. 35 No. 1 March 2012

 64
2 B. Singer et al., ‘Analysis of Vietna-
mese Oil Paintings Affected by
Sulphur Dioxide Pollution’, in Essays
on Modern and Contemporary Vietnamese
Art, ed. S. Lee and N. Nhu Huy (Singa-
Downloaded by [Bettina Ebert] at 02:39 05 October 2012
pore: Singapore Art Museum, 2009),
68– 74.
3 G.W. Wanloon and S.J. Duffy, Environ-
mental Chemistry: A Global Perspective
(Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2000), 98– 9.
4 V. Daniels, ‘Discoloration of Paper
Induced by Pigments Containing Zinc’,
Restaurator 11 (1990): 236– 43.
5 B. Singer and C. Liddie, ‘A Study of
Unusual Degradation on a Seascape
Painting Associated With the Use of
Zinc White Pigment’, The Paper Conser-
vator 29 (2005): 5– 14.
6 N. Tuan, ‘Energy and Environmental
Issues in Vietnam’, Natural Resources
Forum 21, no. 3 (1997): 201–7.
Ebert, Singer and Grimaldi
the unprimed canvas, causing the paint to become even more underbound.
Medium analysis of the paint layers by GCMS showed that linseed oil is
likely to be the binding medium. However, the oil has degraded and
large quantities of zinc carboxylate soaps are present.
Paint samples taken from both paintings were examined using optical
microscopy in order to gain a better understanding of the layer structure.
Subsequently, polarized light microscopy (PLM) and scanning electron
microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-
EDS) were carried out with the aim of identifying pigments. Zinc white
(zinc oxide) was identified extensively in both paintings, in addition to
small amounts of other pigments.
The extensive use of zinc white in both paintings was found to be a sig-
nificant factor in their severe state of deterioration. Efflorescence in the form
of zinc salts was identified on the surface of both paintings. The crystals on
Portrait of a Student were found through EDS to contain the elements zinc
and sulfur,2 and were identified as zinc sulfate hexahydrate from their
monoclinic structure and by means of Fourier transform infra-red spec-
troscopy (FTIR). Partially bound acicular zinc oxide crystals were also
seen within paint samples, as well as bundles of acicular crystals identified
as zinc sulfate heptahydrate. It is possible that these migrated to the surface
and lost water before recrystallizing in the hexahydrate form. Efflorescence
on Portrait of the Artist’s Wife was more granular in nature, and the cubic
structure allowed the crystals to be tentatively identified as zinc sulfate
monohydrate.
In addition, circular inclusions were found within the impasto layer of
Portrait of the Artist’s Wife. These inclusions were occasionally also ident-
ified within the overlying paint layers, and had caused these paint layers
to rupture and break off in many cases, suggesting that the inclusions
had grown in size. Examination of the growths by SEM-EDS revealed
that they were composed of acicular zinc sulfate crystals. It would appear
that the artist had added loose zinc white pigment to tube paints as a
bulking agent for creating the thick impasto layer. Infrared spectroscopy
revealed that metal carboxylates likely to be zinc palmitate and zinc stearate
were extensively present within the paint layers. The hydrolysis and sapo-
nification of the binding medium would have been exacerbated by high
humidity levels in Hanoi.
Sulfur dioxide is known to be present in polluted air due to the combus-
tion of fossil fuels that contain sulfur compounds. Sulfur dioxide is readily
oxidized to sulfuric acid in water droplets, the most important oxidants
being hydrogen peroxide or atmospheric ozone.3 Hydrogen peroxide is
present in organic material undergoing photochemical oxidation, especially
in the presence of zinc oxide.4
It could be hypothesized, therefore, that zinc oxide combines with sulfu-
ric acid from sulfur dioxide pollution to produce the zinc sulfates found on
the two paintings.5 Hanoi suffers from severe sulfur dioxide pollution,
typical of developing economies.6 However, the zinc sulfates may also
have been a result of metal soaps forming initially, and reacting with sulfu-
ric acid to form zinc sulfate. The water-soluble nature of zinc sulfate made
consolidation of the flaking paint highly problematic.
Discussion of paint characteristics
The nature of the paint layers on these two paintings presented significant
problems for consolidation treatment. Detailed examination and scientific
analysis of the paint layers by optical microscopy and SEM-EDS indicated
that the paint was underbound, which implied air gaps around the pigment
particles and a high pigment volume concentration (PVC).
Journal of the Institute of Conservation Vol. 35 No. 1 March 2012
 Aquazol as a consolidant for matte paint on Vietnamese paintings 65

In the paint and coatings industry, great importance is placed on the

critical pigment volume concentration (CPVC), since this will affect the
physical and optical properties, appearance and stability of the paint.7 7 E. Hansen, S. Walston, and M. Bishop,
CPVC is defined as the point at which all air surrounding pigment particles eds., introduction to Matte Paint: Its
History and Technology, Analysis, Proper-
has been replaced with binding medium. The CPVC will vary, depending
ties, Deterioration and Treatment, With
on the pigments and binding medium in a particular paint film, but it Special Emphasis on Ethnographic
generally lies between 30% and 65% by pigment volume.8 With decreased Objects: A Bibliographic Supplement to
binding medium, the PVC exceeds the CPVC due to increased voids Art and Archaeology Technical Abstracts,
around individual pigment particles.9 Volume 30, 1993 (Los Angeles: Getty
Conservation Institute, 1994), xxxvi–lxi.
Matteness of the paint increases with higher PVC due to greater diffuse
reflection off the individual pigment particles as these protrude above the 8 Hansen, Walston, and Bishop, Matte
even surface of the binding medium. The presence of air gaps surrounding Paint, xxxvi.
pigment particles also affects reflectance due to variations in refractive 9 Hansen, Walston, and Bishop, Matte
index between air, binding medium and pigment particles. Paint, xxxvii.
Porosity is also affected by PVC. Paint with high PVC is more porous due
to the presence of air within the paint film. It is also more likely to crack due
to the low amount of binding medium present, which has a direct impact on
the strength and extendibility of the paint film.10 Since not all of the 10 Hansen, Walston, and Bishop, Matte
pigment particles are coated in the binding medium, there is a lack of cohe- Paint, xxxvii.
sion within the paint. This increases as the paint ages and the binding
Downloaded by [Bettina Ebert] at 02:39 05 October 2012

medium degrades over time.

Paints with high PVC are more subject to deterioration as a result of inter-
actions with environmental conditions and atmospheric pollutants. The
porosity and low binding medium content mean that not all pigment par-
ticles are coated and some may, therefore, be in contact with air. In addition,
many pigment particles are found as agglomerates. Zinc oxide in particular
is known to be hygroscopic and would, therefore, readily absorb moisture
and agglomerate. Hence, pigment particles in underbound paints will be
more reactive than in well bound paint.
All of these factors contributed to the need for consolidation of the paint
layers in the two Vietnamese paintings.

Requirements of the consolidant

Consolidants were evaluated based on various requirements of the paint
films described above.

1 Ageing characteristics and compatibility

The poor condition of the paint film required extensive consolidation in
order to replace deteriorated or missing binding medium. The nature of
porous and powdery paint layers is such that reversibility is often difficult,
if not impossible, to achieve without disturbing the original paint.11 Long- 11 E. Hansen and R. Lowinger, ‘Investi-
term compatibility of the consolidant with the paint was, therefore, of gations into Techniques for the Consoli-
prime importance. The large quantities of consolidant required meant dation of High Pigment Volume
Concentration Paint at the Getty Con-
that minimal yellowing on ageing was desirable. Degradation of a consoli- servation Institute’, Western Association
dant over time often involves cross-linking or depolymerization. While of Art Conservation Newsletter 12, no. 3
these factors were less important than the effect on the appearance of the (1990): 13–16.
paint, it was vital that deterioration of the consolidant was slow. It was
also necessary for the consolidant to be compatible with the environmental
conditions under which the paintings would be kept. For example, a low
glass transition temperature (Tg) may cause consolidants to remain tacky
and retain dirt.

2 Effect on surface appearance of paint film

We sought a consolidant with limited gloss that would not saturate the
surface of the matte paint, thus altering its appearance. Solvent-based con-
solidants tend to be very glossy and may require the addition of matting
agents, which occasionally form tidelines or deposits on the paint film.

Journal of the Institute of Conservation Vol. 35 No. 1 March 2012

 66
Downloaded by [Bettina Ebert] at 02:39 05 October 2012
12 E. Hansen, E. Sadoff, and
R. Lowinger, ‘A Review of Problems
Encountered in the Consolidation of
Paint on Ethnographic Wood Objects
and Potential Remedies’, in ICOM-CC
9th Triennial Meeting Preprints, Dresden,
ed. K. Grimstad (Los Angeles: ICOM
Committee for Conservation, 1990),
163–8.
13 Hansen and Lowinger, ‘Techniques
for Consolidation’.
14 S. Michalski et al., ‘The Ultrasonic
Mister: Applications in the Consolida-
tion of Powdery Paint on Wooden Arti-
facts’, in Painted Wood: History and
Conservation, ed. V. Dorge and F. Carey
Howlett (Los Angeles: Getty Conserva-
tion Institute, 1998), 498–513.
15 Hansen, Sadoff, and Lowinger,
‘Review of Problems Encountered’.
16 Hansen, Walston, and Bishop, Matte
Paint, xxxvi–lxi.
17 Hansen, Walston, and Bishop, Matte
Paint, xxxvi–lxi.
18 Michalski et al., ‘Ultrasonic Mister’.
Ebert, Singer and Grimaldi
However, the high gloss can often be mitigated by using several
applications at a lower concentration.
3 Working characteristics
The consolidant needed sufficient penetration into the paint film to
improve cohesiveness and re-adhere flakes. The flow or viscosity of the sol-
ution was very important, since high viscosity may limit penetration. In
addition, viscous consolidants may remain on the paint surface and alter
the appearance of the paint. Conversely, a very low viscosity consolidant
may disrupt the brittle paint and dislodge new paint flakes, as well as
soaking through into the canvas.
4 Flexibility
The resulting film of consolidant formed should not be brittle, but should
remain flexible in order to allow some movement within the paint film
and prevent renewed fracturing while at the same time maintaining
adhesion.
Effect of consolidants and their manner of application on matte, brittle
paint films
Ethnographic conservators are often faced with the consolidation of matte,
porous and flaking paints.12 As a result, extensive research has been under-
taken in this field. It has been found that the manner of application plays a
vital role in the success of treatment when undertaking consolidation of
matte paint surfaces—indeed, the properties of the applied solution are
more important than the properties of the individual resin or polymer
that is used as a consolidant.13
Different treatment approaches may be used for consolidation of
powdery and flaking paints. It may be desirable to use solutions that
increase a consolidant’s penetration into and distribution within the paint
film. Multiple applications of dilute solutions are often more effective at
consolidating than single applications of concentrated solutions, since
they initially penetrate further due to their low viscosity.14 Wetting agents
may also be used to reduce the surface tension of the consolidant, thus
aiding penetration. Highly volatile solvents will also reduce the degree of
penetration of the solution.15
The use of a vapour-saturated atmosphere to inhibit solvent loss leads to
a more even distribution of the consolidant within the paint film.16 This
helps eliminate the tidelines or darkening often associated with consolida-
tion of matte surfaces. Darkening of the paint does not depend on the
refractive index of the resin or polymer used as a consolidant but results
from penetration of the solution into porous paint, leading to increased
specular reflection.17
Ultrasonic misting has also been suggested as a method for improved pen-
etration through the application of small droplets of a consolidant.18 This
process allows a very controlled manner of application in order to limit the
amount of the solution applied. Other methods of application include brushing
from the reverse of the canvas and application via syringe, while the addition of
matting agents is also possible. Matting agents change the surface appearance of
the resulting consolidant film as their very fine dispersed particles leave a rough
surface on drying that increases diffuse reflection.
Low viscosity solutions may have a negative impact on flaking paint,
especially in combination with low wetting ability. When a low viscosity
consolidant solution is applied, bond strengths within the solution may
be stronger than cohesion within the paint, causing new paint flakes to
break off. Generally, polar consolidants tend to adhere the paint more
Journal of the Institute of Conservation Vol. 35 No. 1 March 2012
 Aquazol as a consolidant for matte paint on Vietnamese paintings 67

readily than less polar materials.19 Thus, an important consideration for 19 J. Ashley-Smith, ed., Science for Con-
successful consolidation is the strength and type of intermolecular forces. servators Volume 3: Adhesives and Coat-
This brief review shows that success in consolidation lies in the appli- ings, 2nd ed. (Abingdon: Routledge,
1983), 19.
cation method as well as in the type of resin or polymer used.

Testing of consolidants
Consolidation tests were carried out on a replica as well as along the
edges of the two paintings using numerous different materials. Aqueous
consolidants were initially tested, since the characteristics associated with
water-based consolidants (e.g., strong polarity) causes them to be more
compatible with matte paint surfaces. The paintings’ partially water-
sensitive nature meant that consolidation testing and treatment had to be
approached with caution.
The water-based consolidants tested were isinglass, gelatin, funori,
Evacon-R and Jade 403 N. Testing showed that, even with fairly matte con-
solidants, the surface of the paint was left with a slight sheen, and the excess
gloss could not be reduced without risk of damage to the fragile paint
layers. In addition, it was found that some water-soluble components
were being dissolved and washed out irrespective of the consolidant vis-
Downloaded by [Bettina Ebert] at 02:39 05 October 2012

cosity, leading to the implosion and collapse of paint flakes. These effects
ruled out the use of a water-based consolidant for treatment, and further
aqueous consolidants were not tested as a result.
Subsequently, solvent-based consolidants were tested. These were Klucel
G in ethanol, Mowilith 30 in ethanol, Lascaux heat-seal adhesive 375 in
white spirit (Stoddard solvent), Plexisol P-550 in Stoddard solvent, Paraloid
B-44 in propanone (acetone), Paraloid B-72 in propanone and Paraloid B-72
in dimethylbenzene (xylene). Matting agents such as Cosmolloid 80H
microcrystalline wax and fumed silica were added in varying amounts in
order to modify the high gloss commonly associated with some of these
consolidants. Numerous variations in the manner of application and con-
centration of the applied solution were tested.
The consolidants were evaluated according to several factors, including
viscosity and flow as well as penetration of the solution. Ease of application
was found to be related to solvent characteristics, such as rate of evapor-
ation and effect on surface tension. Ageing characteristics were also con-
sidered, since reversibility of the consolidant would not be possible. One
of the most critical factors in successful consolidation of these two paintings
was found to be the effect on surface appearance. Due to the matte nature of
the paintings, any consolidants that caused an increase in gloss, saturation,
tidelines or deposits from matting agents without safe surface clearance
were eliminated from consideration.
Some of the problems experienced during testing included the lack of
cohesiveness and plasticity within the paint, as well as a lack of adhesion
even after numerous applications. Due to the brittle nature of the paint,
the application of a consolidant often led to the fracturing and loss of
paint flakes as well as previously attached paint. Results of these extensive 20 B. Ebert, ‘Non-Aqueous Consoli-
tests suggested that none of the consolidants and methods of application dants for Matte, Flaking Paintings’,
tested above would be of use in successfully treating these paintings. email to Conservation DistList, April 1,
2008, http://cool.conservation-us.org/
byform/mailing-lists/cdl/2008/0355.
html (accessed February 14, 2012); and
Consolidation tests using Aquazol
N. Quabek, ‘Non-Aqueous Consoli-
At this stage, it was decided to test Aquazol after replies to a query posted dants for Matte, Flaking Paintings’,
on the Conservation DistList recommended this material.20 This was dis- email to Conservation DistList, April 3,
solved in propan-2-ol since this is a solvent with moderate evaporation 2008, http://cool.conservation-us.org/
rate and polarity and limited health and safety concerns. Initial tests with byform/mailing-lists/cdl/2008/0366.
html (accessed February 14, 2012).
Aquazol dissolved in propan-2-ol were successful, since it was found to
be the only solvent-based consolidant that did not increase saturation of

Journal of the Institute of Conservation Vol. 35 No. 1 March 2012

 68
21 R. Wolbers, M. McGinn, and
D. Duerbeck, ‘Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline):
A New Conservation Consolidant’, in
Painted Wood: History and Conservation,
ed. V. Dorge and F. Carey Howlett (Los
Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute,
1998), 514– 27.
Downloaded by [Bettina Ebert] at 02:39 05 October 2012
Table 1 Results of tests using different concentrations of different grades of Aquazol locally applied by brush to flaking paint.
Consolidant
Aquazol 500
Aquazol 200
Aquazol 50
1: 1 mixture of Aquazol 50 and
Aquazol 200 (Mixture A)
1: 1 mixture of Aquazol 50 and
Aquazol 500 (Mixture B)
Ebert, Singer and Grimaldi
the paint. Hence, further tests were undertaken at varying concentrations in
order to determine the most suitable method of use (Table 1).
The most successful solution was found to be Aquazol 200 at 2.5% w/v in
propan-2-ol. After numerous applications, a slight gloss resulted. However,
this could be reversed without affecting the consolidation by very gently
dabbing the surface with a small cotton swab dipped in propan-2-ol.
Heat-sealing improved adhesion of Aquazol to the paint film.21
Treatment
Portrait of a Student was removed from its strainer in order to undergo paper
stretching on a keyable loom. The tension applied to the painting allowed
the canvas to expand slightly and accommodate the tented paint.
Pre-stretching the painting in this manner also helped reduce planar defor-
mations present (Fig. 3).
A hot air blower was used to warm individual areas gently, increasing
flexibility of the brittle paint layers prior to consolidation. A 2.5% w/v sol-
ution of Aquazol 200 in propan-2-ol was then applied with a fine sable
brush. The warming and consolidation process was repeated as necessary
until the paint was found to be safely consolidated and adhered to the
ground (Fig. 4). Adhesion was improved by gently ironing the surface
with a hot spatula at 758C over silicone release paper to heat-seal the
consolidant.
After this initial consolidation, blind cleavage was still present, while
attempts at consolidating some areas of flaking paint had resulted in the
paint crumbling and disintegrating completely, suggesting that cohesion
within the paint was almost non-existent. Thus, it was decided to apply
an overall coating of the consolidant to the entire surface in order to aid
adhesion.
% (w/v) in
propan-2-ol Results
10 Very thick and viscous, difficult to control, too glossy
5 Slightly better flow and not as viscous, some loose flakes lifted off, too glossy
2.5 Better flow, soaked in without disturbing loose flakes, too glossy, needed several
layers before adhesion was successful
1.25 Very good flow, slightly glossy
10 Fairly viscous so no flakes are broken off, too glossy
5 Quite viscous and glossy
2.5 Better flow, soaked in easily, needed several applications, no change to surface
appearance
1.25 Good flow, rapid penetration, no change in gloss, numerous applications needed,
some flakes disturbed
10 Too viscous and glossy but not as much as higher molecular weights
5 Better flow, too glossy
2.5 After several applications, there was some gloss along paint cracks
1.25 Slightly glossy tidelines
5 Several applications left a glossy tidemark
2.5 Penetrated deeply by capillary action, difficult to control flow, suitable for areas of
blind cleavage, slight gloss on surface
1.25 Good penetration, minimal gloss
1.25 and 5 Applied three coats of 1.25% and left each to dry, locally applied 5% to very raised
areas after flakes were slightly adhered, surface minimally glossy
2.5 Several applications necessary, slightly tackier and less brittle than Mixture A,
surface glossy but could safely be cleared
1.25 Some very raised paint collapsed, easy to clear gloss
1.25 and 5 Some gloss after several applications within paint cracks, raised areas became
more flexible and could be flattened down
Journal of the Institute of Conservation Vol. 35 No. 1 March 2012
 Aquazol as a consolidant for matte paint on Vietnamese paintings 69

Fig. 3 Portrait of a Student (a) before treatment in raking light; and (b) after treatment in raking
light, demonstrating success of pre-stretching treatment with significant decrease in planar
deformations and tented paint. #Witness Collection.
Downloaded by [Bettina Ebert] at 02:39 05 October 2012

Fig. 4 Detail of Portrait of a Student (a) before treatment in raking light; and (b) after treatment in
raking light, showing reduction of tented paint in the sitter’s proper right arm. #Witness
Collection.

Using a soft bristle brush, several coats of the consolidant were brushed
on the painting and allowed to dry under extraction. Each coat was brushed
on in a different direction in order to reduce uneven staining of the support.
Visual inspection revealed that the consolidant had soaked through the
canvas and into the ground layer, improving adhesion of the paint to the
ground. The remaining tented and powdery paint and areas of blind
cleavage could now be treated without further paint loss. Portrait of the
Artist’s Wife was consolidated in the same manner as described above.
The treatment of the two paintings is described in more detail elsewhere.22 22 B. Ebert et al., ‘Analysis and Conser-
vation Treatment of Vietnamese Paint-
ings’, Paper 1305 in ICOM-CC 16th
Triennial Conference Preprints, Lisbon, ed.
Aquazol as a filling material and retouching medium
Janet Bridgland. CD-ROM. Almada:
Several filling materials were tested for areas of paint loss as the required Critério-Produção Gráfica, 2011.
material had to be suitable for very shallow fills as well as deep textured
fills. Some fillers (e.g. Mowiol 4-98 with whiting and Liquitex gesso) were
tested but ruled out due to the need for moisture when clearing excess
from the surface. A 10% w/v solution of Aquazol 500 in propan-2-ol

Journal of the Institute of Conservation Vol. 35 No. 1 March 2012

 70
Downloaded by [Bettina Ebert] at 02:39 05 October 2012
23 Polymer Chemistry Innovations
Inc., ‘Aquazolw Product Information
Sheet’, http://www.polychemistry.
com/dl/PCI18_Aquazol.pdf (accessed
January 22, 2012).
24 T. Chiu, B. Thill, and W. Fairchok,
‘Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline): A New
Water- and Organic-Soluble Adhesive’,
in Water-Soluble Polymers: Beauty with
Performance, ed. J. Glass (Washington:
Ebert, Singer and Grimaldi
Fig. 5 Portrait of the Artist’s Wife after treatment in reflected light. #Witness Collection.
mixed with whiting was prepared. This mixture displayed hardly any
shrinkage on drying. The resulting fill was extremely flexible without brit-
tleness, and any excess was easily cleared with propan-2-ol, eliminating the
need for moisture. The fill could successfully be textured using a scalpel.
Based on these results, Aquazolw was used to fill losses in both paintings.
Imitative retouching was subsequently used to reduce the visual impact
of areas of loss. For this purpose, dry pigments bound in a 20% w/v sol-
ution of Aquazol 200 in propan-2-ol were used. 1-methoxypropan-2-ol
was used as a solvent for retouching due to its slower evaporative rate.
Once a good colour match had been reached, the paint was gradually
built up in layers with small brushstrokes (Figs. 5 and 6).
Structure and properties of Aquazol
Polymer Chemistry Innovations has manufactured poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazo-
line) under the trade name Aquazol since the early 1990s. The product
information sheet available for Aquazol lists it as a pH neutral, pale
yellow solid.23 It is manufactured in four different grades, three of which
are readily available to conservators. These are Aquazol 50, 200 and 500,
where the number refers to the target molecular weight.
Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) (PEOX) is a tertiary amide polymer made by cat-
ionic ring-opening polymerization of 2-ethyl-2-oxazoline.24 The monomer is
a colourless liquid with a boiling point of 1288C and a freezing point of
2628C. The molecular structure of the polymer is characterized by a back-
bone of alternating two carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom with a
pendent propionyl group off the nitrogen.
Journal of the Institute of Conservation Vol. 35 No. 1 March 2012
 Aquazol as a consolidant for matte paint on Vietnamese paintings 71

American Chemical Society, 1986),

425 –33.
Downloaded by [Bettina Ebert] at 02:39 05 October 2012

Fig. 6 Portrait of a Student after treatment in reflected light. #Witness Collection.

Aquazol is an amorphous linear polymer with a Tg of 69– 718C and a

density of 1.14 g.cm23. It has excellent thermal stability, with a decompo-
sition temperature of 3808C in air and 4008C in nitrogen.25 The refractive 25 All technical specifications come
index (1.520) lies within the range for glass. Chiu, Thill, and Fairchok deter- from Polymer Chemistry Innovations
Inc., ‘Aquazolw Product Information
mined molecular weights by size-exclusion chromatography (SEC). Its
Sheet’; and Chiu, Thill, and Fairchok,
rheological behaviour suggests that Aquazol has excellent shear stability ‘Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)’.
and melt flow. Aquazol may form a compatible polymer blend with other
polymers, with the resulting blend having a single Tg value. It may be
used either in solution or as a hot-melt adhesive coating with good
tensile strength.
The Mark – Houwink equation is:

[h] = (6.5 × 10−4 )M0.56

where [h] is the intrinsic viscosity and M the molecular weight.26 26 Chiu, Thill, and Fairchok, ‘Poly(2-
This implies that high concentrations of the polymer in an aqueous sol- ethyl-2-oxazoline)’.
ution can be used without excessive viscosity, especially when compared
to similar materials used in conservation.
Aquazol has a very broad solubility range, being soluble in water, metha-
nol, ethanol and propanone, as well as other polar, organic solvents.27 The 27 Chiu, Thill, and Fairchok, ‘Poly(2-
cloud point at a concentration of 1% in water varies from 62.0– 64.58C, ethyl-2-oxazoline)’.
depending on the molecular weight. This may be increased by the addition
of surfactants or the use of different solvents.
Wolbers, McGinn, and Duerbeck carried out accelerated light ageing tests
on samples of Aquazol 50 and 500.28 The samples received a total radiant 28 Wolbers, McGinn, and Duerbeck,
exposure of 280 kJ.m22. Various methods of analysis were carried out ‘Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)’.
both before and after light ageing in order to characterize the ageing
process of Aquazol. FTIR was carried out on samples dissolved in chloro-
form and cast as thin films. The resulting spectra were essentially
unchanged. In addition, pH measurement was carried out on 5% w/v
aqueous solutions of Aquazol. Different molecular weights of Aquazol

Journal of the Institute of Conservation Vol. 35 No. 1 March 2012

 72
29 Chiu, Thill, and Fairchok, ‘Poly
(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)’.
30 Wolbers, McGinn, and Duerbeck,
‘Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)’.
Downloaded by [Bettina Ebert] at 02:39 05 October 2012
31 J. Arslanoglu, ‘Evaluation of the Use
of Aquazol as an Adhesive in Paintings
Conservation’, Western Association for
Art Conservation Newsletter 25, no. 2
(2003): 12–18.
32 Wolbers, McGinn, and Duerbeck,
‘Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)’.
33 J. Arslanoglu, ‘Aquazol as Used in
Conservation Practice’, Western Associ-
ation for Art Conservation Newsletter 26,
no.1 (2004): 10– 15.
34 Wolbers, McGinn, and Duerbeck,
‘Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)’.
Ebert, Singer and Grimaldi
had identical pH measurements, demonstrating its ionic character. Colour
measurements showed no yellowing or discoloration upon ageing, unlike
some other conservation adhesives (e.g., Beva 371).
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) by Chiu, Thill, and Fairchock con-
firmed the thermal stability of Aquazol, with differential thermal analysis
(DTA) yielding similar results before and after ageing.29 However, it was
found that, particularly for Aquazol 50, the endothermic peak broadened
on exposure, which could be due to a decrease in molecular weight. No
exothermic peaks or signs of decomposition were noted.
Wolbers, McGinn, and Duerbeck undertook viscosity measurements on
solutions at 258C, which revealed decreased viscosity on light ageing.
SEC was used to determine molecular weights, indicating a substantial
drop in molecular weight upon ageing, in particular for Aquazol 500.
Thus, Aquazol was found to depolymerize on ageing, leading to a
reduction in molecular weight.30
Re-solubilization tests revealed that Aquazol films were re-soluble in the
same solvents in which they were initially dissolved. Tensile strength
measurement of cast films of a 20% w/v solution of Aquazol 500 in propa-
none was carried out by Wolbers, McGinn, and Duerbeck. This demon-
strated that, even at very low relative humidity (RH) levels, Aquazol
films were extremely plastic. Flexibility tests carried out by Arslanoglu
showed that Aquazol compared favourably with other traditional consoli-
dants used in paintings conservation, such as gelatin and isinglass.31 Cast
films of gelatin and isinglass were found to be very brittle, while
Aquazol films did not break or crack at all when bent using the Mandrel
Bend Test. Arslanoglu found that the moisture gain of Aquazol films at
an elevated RH of 75% was in the range of 7– 11% by weight, compared
to a 4– 5% moisture gain by weight of gelatin and isinglass, respectively.
This may pose an issue when treating artworks that are subsequently
returned to a climate with a high RH. It was not considered to be a
problem for the Vietnamese paintings, as they would be kept in a
museum environment, with controlled temperature and constant RH of
around 50%.
In addition to analysis of Aquazol before and after light ageing, a number
of case studies using Aquazol as a conservation material are described by
Wolbers, McGinn, and Duerbeck.32 These demonstrate the handling prop-
erties of Aquazol in the consolidation of painted wooden objects. Arslano-
glu discusses the many different uses of Aquazol in conservation practice
based on a survey of paintings, paper and furniture conservators.33
Identification of Aquazol
It would be useful if Aquazol could be easily identified as a conservation
material when found on works in the future. FTIR has already been used
to demonstrate ageing properties of Aquazol and hence could be used as
an analytical tool in future investigations.34 FTIR spectra of different
grades of Aquazol were obtained in the current study and, as expected,
the spectra obtained for the different grades did not differ significantly.
The spectrum for Aquazol 50 is characterized by a very strong absorption
peak at 1629 cm21, typical for a tertiary amide (Fig. 7). Furthermore,
there is a weak absorption peak at 2940 cm21 which is typical for both
the – CH2 – and – CH3 stretches. In addition, there are numerous strong
absorption peaks at 1420 cm21, 1372.6 cm21, 1193.8 cm21, 1060.9 cm21
and 815.2 cm21. These peaks were attributed by Wolbers, McGinn, and
Duerbeck to either an aromatic sulfonic acid or sulfonate ester, and are
likely to result from the presence of the methyl tosylate (methyl 4-methyl-
benzenesulfonate) initiator used in the polymerization process, or its
Journal of the Institute of Conservation Vol. 35 No. 1 March 2012
 Aquazol as a consolidant for matte paint on Vietnamese paintings 73
Downloaded by [Bettina Ebert] at 02:39 05 October 2012

Fig. 7 FTIR spectrum obtained from a sample of Aquazol 50.

Fig. 8 Pyrogram obtained from a sample of Aquazol 50, as well as the full mass spectrum of the
component eluted off at 2.57 minutes.

hydrolysis product p-toluenesulfonic acid (4-methylbenzenesulfonic

acid).35 35 Wolbers, McGinn, and Duerbeck,
Another potential method of identification of Aquazol via pyrolysis gas ‘Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)’.
chromatography mass spectrometry (Py-GCMS) was demonstrated in

Journal of the Institute of Conservation Vol. 35 No. 1 March 2012

 74
Downloaded by [Bettina Ebert] at 02:39 05 October 2012
36 W. McCrone, ‘The Microscopical
Identification of Artists’ Pigments’,
Journal of the International Institute for
Conservation Canadian Group 7, nos. 1 –2
(1982): 11– 34; and S. Wülfert, Der Blick
ins Bild. Lichtmikroscopische Methoden
zur Untersuchung von Bildaufbau, Fasern
und Pigmenten (Ravensburg: Ravensbur-
ger Buchverlag, 1999).
37 V. Pitthard et al., ‘Gas Chromato-
graphy-Mass Spectrometry of Binding
Media from Early 20th Century Paint
Samples from Arnold Schönberg’s
Palette’, Chromatographia 62 (2005):
175–82.
Ebert, Singer and Grimaldi
this present study. The pyrogram obtained from the pyrolysis of a sample of
Aquazol 50 at 6008C was characterized by a very large peak with a retention
time of 2.57 minutes (Fig. 8). The mass spectrum for this peak displayed a
molecular ion at 99 Daltons, a prominent peak at 98 Daltons, and a base
peak at 69 Daltons. Comparison with the NIST library allowed the pyrolysis
product to be identified as the monomer 2-ethyl-2-oxazoline. Subsequent
smaller peaks with longer retention times are likely to include dimers
and trimers.
Thus, on pyrolysis, poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) depolymerizes and is
mainly broken down into its easily identifiable monomer by means of an
unzipping reaction.
Possible future research
It may be of use to undertake research involving detailed investigations into
the effect of the initiator, methyl tosylate on artists’ materials. This com-
pound is employed in the manufacture of Aquazol and remains in the
polymer. In addition, further research into the heat-sealing characteristics
of Aquazol might possibly lead to its adoption as an adhesive in paintings
conservation.
Conclusion
The material characteristics and general stability of Aquazol make it a suit-
able conservation material. The successful conservation treatment of these
two complex paintings highlights the suitability of Aquazol as a consoli-
dant, filler and retouching medium for paintings with poorly bound,
flaking and matte paint. A potential method of identification of Aquazol
via Py-GCMS has been demonstrated and may be complementary to
FTIR studies in future investigations.
Appendix 1 Analytical methodology
1 PLM
Samples of the pigments were treated with dichloromethane to soften any oil present. They
were then crushed between glass slides to separate the pigment particles and mounted on
microscope slides with Meltmountw 1.66 resin. The prepared samples were examined with
a James Swift MP3500A polarizing microscope using methodology developed by McCrone
and modified by others.36
2 SEM-EDS
Small flakes of each of the samples to be analysed were either mounted on carbon pads on alu-
minium stubs or mounted in cross-sections prepared from fast-setting acrylic resins. Imaging
and elemental analysis of each sample were achieved by EDS analysis using an FEI Quanta 200
ESEM (environmental scanning electron microscope) from Oxford Instruments, fitted with an
INCA EDS (Energy Dispersive Spectra) Analyser.
3 FTIR
Samples were placed onto the diamond window of a Durascope diamond ATR attachment
linked to a Perkin Elmer 1000 FTIR spectrometer. Each sample was pressed down against
the window using a metal anvil and scanned 16 times. The background scan was automatically
subtracted. The sample was thus analysed by reflectance FTIR.
4 GCMS
Each sample was transferred to a glass vial with a conical inset and was derivatized and sub-
jected to chromatographic analysis by GCMS in order to look for evidence of drying oils, waxes
and resins in the paint. The technique used was based on published methods.37 The sample
was heated with 5% methanolic solution of 3-trifluoromethylphenyltrimethylammonium
hydroxide (120 ml) to 608C for 5 hours. The mixture was then subjected to thermal decompo-
sition at 2508C in the injection port, before analysis by GCMS. The GCMS instrument used was
a Thermo Focus fitted with a DSQ mass detector. The column used was a Thermo TR-5 15m
column and the temperature of the column was raised from 608C to 2908C within the run.
Journal of the Institute of Conservation Vol. 35 No. 1 March 2012
 Aquazol as a consolidant for matte paint on Vietnamese paintings 75

5 Pyrolysis–GCMS
A sample of Aquazol was placed on the platinum ribbon filament of a Pyrola 2000 pyrolyser
and pyrolysed for 2 seconds at 6008C in a helium atmosphere. The pyrolyser chamber was
maintained at a temperature of 1758C and the pyrolyser GC interface was maintained at
2508C. The column used was a Thermo TR-5 15m column and the initial temperature of
408C was held for two minutes. This was then ramped at 108C per minute to a temperature
of 2508C which was held for 5 minutes. Helium was used as a carrier gas at a constant flow
of 1.5ml per minute. The GCMS instrumentation used consisted of a Thermo Electron Corpor-
ation Focus gas chromatograph coupled with a Thermo Electron Corporation DSQII mass
spectrometer.

Acknowledgements tifier : la spectoscopie infra-rouge à transformée de Fourier (FTIR) et

We wish to acknowledge the Art and Humanities Research Council
(AHRC) for financial support given to Bettina Ebert during her post-
graduate studies. Special mention goes to Adrian Jones, Executive
Director of Witness Collection, without whom this research would
not have been possible. The authors would like to thank Sally Mac-
Downloaded by [Bettina Ebert] at 02:39 05 October 2012
de la pyro-chromatographie en phase gazeuse par spectrométrie de
masse (py-SMGC).
Zusammenfassung
,,Aquazol als Sicherungsmittel von matten Farbschichten bei vietna-

millan Armstrong who carried out some of the initial analysis of
binders and pigments in the paintings. Thanks to everyone who
responded to the authors’ query posted on the Conservation DistList.
Abstract
This article describes the consolidation of two Vietnamese portrait
paintings that had suffered flaking paint, tenting and blind clea-
vage. Scientific analysis revealed the presence of zinc sulfates as
a result of the degradation processes. This posed consolidation
issues since zinc sulfates are very water soluble. A discussion of
paint characteristics demonstrates the particular requirements of
consolidants. The effect of consolidants and their manner of appli-
cation on matte paint films is elucidated, followed by a description
of testing of consolidants. The only consolidant suitable for use
was found to be Aquazol, hence this was tested at length before
being used to consolidate the paint layers. Aquazol was also
used as a filling and retouching medium. The properties of
Aquazol are discussed, and two potential methods of identifi-
cation of Aquazol, when used as a conservation material, were
demonstrated; using Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy
(FTIR) and pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry
(Py-GCMS).
Résumé
«L’Aquazolw comme consolidant des couches picturales mates sur
des peintures vietnamiennes»
Cet article décrit la consolidation de deux portraits peints vietna-
miens qui présentaient de la peinture écaillée, des soulèvements et
des ampoules (soulèvements en cloche). L’analyse scientifique a
révélé la présence de sulfates de zinc formés lors des processus de
dégradation. Cela a posé des problèmes de consolidation car les sul-
fates de zinc sont très solubles dans l’eau. Une présentation des car-
actéristiques de la peinture explique les critères particuliers requis
pour les consolidants. L’effet des consolidants et leurs mode d’appli-
cation sur les films de peinture matte sont expliqués; l’essai des con-
solidants est également décrit. Le seul consolidant compatible
s’avère l’Aquazolw, qui par conséquent, a été testé davantage
avant d’être utilisé pour consolider les couches de peinture. L’Aqua-
zolw a également été utilisé comme medium pour les comblements
et les retouches. Les propriétés de l’Aquazolw sont présentées;
lorsque l’Aquazolw est utilisé comme matériau de conservation, il
est démontré que deux méthodes peuvent être utilisées pour l’iden-
mesischen Gemälden“
Dieser Artikel beschreibt die Konsolidierung zweier vietname-
sischer Portraits, die unter blätterndem, schuppendem Farbauftrag
gelitten haben. Durch Analyse wurde die Präsenz von Zinksulfat als
ein Resultat des Zerfallsprozesses erkannt. Dies verkomplizierte die
Konbsolidierungsprozesse, da Zinksulfate sehr wasserlöslich sind.
Eine Diskussion der Charakteristika des Farbauftrags hebt die
besonderen Bedingungen, die an das Konsolidierungsmittel gestellt
werden, hervor. Der Effekt des Konsolidierungsmittels und der Art
der Auftragung bei matten Farbfilmen wird erklärt, gefolgt von
einer Beschreibung der Tests der Konsolidierungsmittel. Das
einzige Konsolidierungsmittel, das in dieser Situation anwendbar
war, war Aquazol. Dies wurde deshalb auch vor der Anwendung
extensiv getestet. Aquazol wurde als Füll- und Retuschiermittel
benutzt. Die Eigenschaften von Aquazol werden diskutiert und
zwei potentielle Identifikationsmethoden bei der Anwendung von
Aquazol als Restaurierungsmaterial, demonstriert, die FTIR und
Pyrylose Gaschromatografie Massenspektroskopie (py GCMS)
benutzen.
Resumen
“Aquazol como un consolidante para pintura mate sobre pinturas
vietnamitas”
Este documento describe el proceso de consolidación de dos retratos
vietnamitas pintados, afectados por la descamación, el levanta-
miento y la separación de la capa pictórica. Los análisis cientı́ficos
revelaron la presencia de sulfatos de zinc como un resultado del
proceso de degradación. Esto plantea problemas de consolidación
puesto que los sulfatos de zinc son muy solubles al agua. Una discu-
sión sobre las caracterı́sticas de la pintura mostró los requerimientos
especı́ficos de los consolidantes. Se definieron el efecto de los conso-
lidantes, y sus formas de aplicación sobre capas de pintura mate y se
hizo una descripción de ejemplos de consolidantes. El único conso-
lidante que se adecuaba resultó ser Aquazol y por ello se probó
ampliamente antes de aplicarlo a las capas de pintura como conso-
lidante. Aquazol también fue usado para rellenar y retocar la super-
ficie. Se discutieron también las propiedades de Aquazol y
quedaron demostrados dos potenciales métodos de identificación
de Aquazol, cuando se usa como material de conservación:
usando espectroscopia infrarroja fourier (FTIR) y espectrometrı́a
cromatografica de la pirólisis de la masa gaseosa (py-GCMS,
ambas siglas en inglés).

Journal of the Institute of Conservation Vol. 35 No. 1 March 2012

 76 Ebert, Singer and Grimaldi

Biographies oped a research interest in the analysis of artists’ materials. He is cur-

Bettina Ebert graduated from Northumbria University in 2008 with
an MA in conservation of fine art (easel paintings). She has been
working for Asiarta Foundation since January 2009, where she is
in charge of collections care and conservation of the Witness Collec-
tion, a comprehensive collection of modern and contemporary Viet-
namese art. Her main research interests include Vietnamese lacquer
painting, as well as the consolidation and cleaning of unvarnished
paintings.
Brian Singer obtained a PhD in organic chemistry from Leeds Uni-
versity in 1976. From 1984, he taught art conservation chemistry in
Gateshead College and later in Newcastle Polytechnic, where he devel-
rently a Senior Lecturer at Northumbria University where he teaches
art conservation science and forensic trace analysis. He has research
interests in both the development of techniques for the analysis of
artists’ materials and in the development of conservation treatments.
Nicky Grimaldi obtained her MA in conservation of fine art (easel
paintings) at Northumbria University in 1993. She is currently
Senior Lecturer at Northumbria University teaching conservation
of fine art (easel paintings). Her main research interests are con-
cerned with the development of cleaning and consolidation tech-
niques for modern and contemporary art as well as developing
methods of structural support for unlined paintings on canvas.

Materials and suppliers

Acetone and Stoddard solvent: Fumed silica: Jade 403 N:
VWR International Ltd Conservation Resources Ltd Preservation Equipment Ltd
Hunter Boulevard 5532 Port Royal Road Vinces Road
Magna Park Springfield Diss
Lutterworth Virginia 22151 Norfolk IP22 4HQ
Leicestershire LE17 4XN USA UK
UK
Downloaded by [Bettina Ebert] at 02:39 05 October 2012

Aquazolw, funori, Mowilith 30, Paraloid Gelatin: Propan-2-ol, xylene, Mowiol 4-98 and
B44, Paraloid B72 and Plexisol P550: Silverprint 1-methoxypropan-2-ol:
Kremer Pigmente GmbH & Co. KG 12 Valentine Place Sigma-Aldrich Company Ltd
Hauptstr. 41-47 London SE1 8QH The Old Brickyard
88317 Aichstetten UK Gillingham
Germany Dorset SP8 4XT
UK
Evacon-R and Klucel G: Isinglass, whiting, Lascaux heat-seal
Conservation by Design adhesive 375 and Cosmolloid 80H micro-
Timecare Works crystalline wax:
5 Singer Way A P Fitzpatrick
Woburn Road Industrial Estate 142 Cambridge Heath Road
Kempston Bethnal Green
Bedford MK42 7AW London E1 5QJ
UK UK

Contact addresses
Bettina Ebert Nicky Grimaldi and Brian Singer
Witness Collection School of Arts and Social Sciences
Menara Maxis, 36th floor Northumbria University
Kuala Lumpur City Centre Burt Hall
Kuala Lumpur 50088 Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE1 8ST
Malaysia UK
Email: be@asiarta.org Email: brian.singer@northumbria.ac.uk
Email: nicky.grimaldi@northumbria.ac.uk

Journal of the Institute of Conservation Vol. 35 No. 1 March 2012