THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

TITLE: DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF A VERTICAL AXIS

HIGH-WAY WIND TURBINE

NAME: ERNEST SAWASAWA

SIN:14497347

PROG: BEng MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COURSE: EG 500

SUPERVISOR: MR BWEMBYA
Declaration
This dissertation is submitted as part of the fulfilment for the award of an honours degree in
Mechanical engineering.

The work is the result of my own research and investigations. All sections of the text and results
which have been obtained from other sources are fully referenced. I understand that cheating and
plagiarism constitute a breach of University regulations and academic honesty and therefore
carries a heavy penalty.

ERNEST SAWASAWA

Signature: .............................................

Date: .....................................................

Mr EMMANUEL MUTALE BWEMBYA (Project Supervisor)

Signature: .............................................

Date: .....................................................

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Approval
This is to certify that the project titled Design and Fabrication of a High-way Vertical Axis Wind
Turbine carried out by Ernest Sawasawa has been read and approved for meeting part of the
requirements and regulations of the EG500 course in BEng-Mechanical (Hons) in the School of
Engineering at The Copperbelt University.

Supervisor:

Mr E. Bwembya

Lecturer at The Copperbelt University.

Signature………………………

Date………………………….

ii
Acknowledgement
I am eternally grateful to my creator and saviour, the lord Jesus Christ who by his indescribable
grace has given me the strength and wisdom to undertake this project. I would like to express my
special thanks of gratitude to the following exceptional people for their immeasurable efforts;

Mr Bwembya my project supervisor, Mr Masendeke for allowing me to propose the project and
all the lecturers from the mechanical department that corrected and advised me during the project
proposal.

iii
Abstract
Wind energy is by far the safest and cleanest source of energy in the world. However, a huge
portion of this energy is left unused and is hence wasted. It is the therefore my focus in this project
to study how high way winds in particular can be converted into useful energy to power items such
as street lights, speed camera and traffic lights to name a few. A thorough study of wind patterns
in the region is inclusive of this project to further determine the feasibility of this project.

There are two types of wind turbines with respect to the axes, namely horizontal and vertical axes,
the former has been widely studied whereas the same cannot be said about the latter. In this thesis
vertical axis wind turbines will be our focus of study and review. Three types of vertical wind
turbines exist with respect to blades; namely Savonius rotor, Darrius rotor and H rotor. Vertical
axis wind turbines rotate regardless of the direction of the wind and hence have so much potential
to produce power. In this thesis I will use a combination of Savonius rotors due to its cost
effectiveness despite the low Cp it achieves in comparison to the Darrius rotors which are more
efficient but expensive and more involving to manufacture.

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Table of Contents
Declaration ....................................................................................................................................... i
Approval ......................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgement ......................................................................................................................... iii
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv
List of figures ............................................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
Table of notations, Nomenclature, and Acronyms. ........................................................................ x
Chapter one: Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Aim ........................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Objectives ................................................................................................................................. 4
1.4 Problem statement ..................................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Motivation ................................................................................................................................. 4
1.6 Project scope ............................................................................................................................. 4
Chapter two: Literature review ....................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Evolution and Development of High way-way VAWTs .......................................................... 5
2.2 Operation principle of High-way VAWTs ............................................................................... 6
2.2.1 Wind Capture; General .......................................................................................................... 6
2.2.2 Operation Principle of The Darrieus Turbine. ....................................................................... 6
2.2.3 Operation Principle of the Savonius Turbine......................................................................... 7
2.3 Types of VAWTs ...................................................................................................................... 7
2.3.1 Darrieus-rotor ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.3.2 The Savonius rotor ................................................................................................................. 9
2.3 The H type Darrieus ................................................................................................................ 10
2.4 Efficiencies and Costs of The Different Types of VAWTs .................................................... 11
2.5 Wind Resource Mapping Done by The World Bank in Zambia ............................................ 11
2.6 Improvements and modifications made to VAWTs .......................................................... 12
2.7 Analytical equations........................................................................................................... 13
2.8.1 Derivation of Wind turbine Power and The Bertz Limit ..................................................... 13
2.8.2 Power Curve......................................................................................................................... 16
2.9 Correlation of power and wind speed (Power density) ........................................................... 17

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2.10.0 Tip Speed Ratio.................................................................................................................. 17
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 18
3.1 Proposed Design. .................................................................................................................... 18
3.1.1 CAD: Solid works ................................................................................................................ 18
3.2 Power in The Wind ................................................................................................................. 22
3.3 Savonius blades design ........................................................................................................... 23
3.4.1 The Shaft .............................................................................................................................. 24
3.4.2 Bearings ............................................................................................................................... 24
3.4.3 Pulleys and belt .................................................................................................................... 25
3.4.4 The nacelle (Pulley housing) ............................................................................................... 26
3.4.5 Alternator (Dynamo)............................................................................................................ 27
3.5 Fabrication and selection of materials .................................................................................... 27
3.6 Tools used to measure the Output ........................................................................................... 29
3.6.1 The digital multimeter.......................................................................................................... 29
3.6.2 Led lights ............................................................................................................................. 29
Chapter 4: Testing and Results ..................................................................................................... 31
4.1.1 Graph of voltage vs rpm ...................................................................................................... 31
4.1.2 Graph of Current vs Rpm..................................................................................................... 32
4.1.3 Graph of Power vs Rpm....................................................................................................... 32
4.2 Calculated Efficiencies ........................................................................................................... 33
4.2.1 Generator efficiency............................................................................................................. 33
4.2.2 Rotor Efficiency ................................................................................................................... 33
4.3 Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 34
Chapter 5: Recommendations, and Conclusion. ........................................................................... 35
5.1 Challenges and Constraints ..................................................................................................... 35
5.1.1 Covid-19; Coronavirus......................................................................................................... 35
5.1.2 Miscommunication .............................................................................................................. 35
5.1.3 Financial constraints ............................................................................................................ 36
5.2 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 36
5.3 Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 36
References ..................................................................................................................................... 37
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................... 39

vi
Appendix B: Bill of costs.............................................................................................................. 39
Appendix C: Gantt chart ............................................................................................................... 40

vii
List of figures
Figure 1 Showing the global wind power cumulative capacity (GWEC , 2012) ............................................ 2
Figure 2 Projected and actual installation of wind energy (DOE, 2013) ....................................................... 3
Figure 3 (TECHNICA, 2012)............................................................................................................................ 3
Figure 4 Highway Helical Wind Turbine Project (Mechzion, 2012) .............................................................. 5
Figure 5 showing the different type of VAWTs (Castellani, 2019) .............................................................. 7
Figure 6 showing major components of a Darrieus turbine ((Surge Journals, 2011) ................................... 8
Figure 7 Darrius rotor type ((Surge Journals, 2011) ..................................................................................... 8
Figure 8 Savonius rotor two layers ((Surge Journals, 2011) ......................................................................... 9
Figure 9 shows the double layer Savonius turbine (admin, 2020) ............................................................... 9
Figure 10 shows a Savonius single layer turbine (admin, 2020) ................................................................ 10
Figure 11 “H” Darrieus rotor (Techplore, 2020) ........................................................................................ 10
Figure 12 Lift and Drag in VAWTs (luvside, 2015)................................................................................... 11
Figure 13 A hybrid Savonius/Darrieus VAWT (www.Wikipedia.com) ..................................................... 13
Figure 14 Cp Values for Given Wind Turbines (Champagnie, 2013) ........................................................ 15
Figure 15 shows an example of a power curve of a 200kw turbine (Champagnie, 2013) .......................... 16
Figure 16 CAD isometric view (solid works 2018) .................................................................................... 18
Figure 17 Solid works first design CAD ..................................................................................................... 19
Figure 18 bottom view of the modified design .......................................................................................... 20
Figure 19 Isometric view of the modified final design ............................................................................... 20
Figure 20 CAD isometric view ................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 21 CAD end elevation view............................................................................................................. 21
Figure 22 CAD elevation sectional view .................................................................................................... 22
Figure 23 Savonius blades analytical (Mina maha,2015) ........................................................................... 23
Figure 24 Solid works illustration of wind flow in the Savonius blades. ................................................... 24
Figure 25 Showing a plain bearing (SKF Catalog,2019) ............................................................................ 25
Figure 26 showing pulley drive .................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 27 The nacelle.................................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 28 Bicycle dynamo of 12 v,0.55 amps ............................................................................................ 27
Figure 29 Fabricated prototype side view Figure 30 Fabricated prototype end elevation ........... 28
Figure 31 Fabricated view bottom view ..................................................................................................... 28
Figure 32 Digital multi-meter ..................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 33 Led lights .................................................................................................................................... 30
Figure 34 Table 6 Voltage vs Rpm chart .................................................................................................... 31
Figure 35 Current vs Rpm.......................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 36 Power vs Rpm............................................................................................................................ 33

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List of Tables

Table 1 showing wind speed classes at 30m (National Renewable Energy Lab USA, 2011) ...................... 2
Table 2 showing Wind Resource at the meteorological masts located at Choma, Mwinilunga, Lusaka, and
Mpika (ESMAP, 2018) ............................................................................................................................... 12
Table 3 showing the wind resource at the meteorological masts located at Chanka, Petauke, Mansa, and
Malawi (ESMAP, 2018) ............................................................................................................................. 12
Table 4 Deep groove Bearing selection (SKF,2019) .................................................................................. 25
Table 5 Recorded outputs ........................................................................................................................... 31
Table 6 showing the energy production estimates (ESMAP, 2018) ........................................................... 39
Table 7 Showing the budget........................................................................................................................ 39
Table 8 Showing the Gantt chart................................................................................................................. 40

ix
Table of notations, Nomenclature, and Acronyms.
VAWT Vertical axis wind turbines

HAWT Horizontal axis wind turbines

α= angle of attack

Cp= coefficient of Power

ϱ = Density

NACA= National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

NASA= National Aeronautics and Space Administration

x
Chapter one: Introduction

1.1 Background
As a country’s level of industrialization and modernization grows, so does the demand for energy
and power to be consumed both domestically and commercially. Energy is the heart of any
developed nation or one that is developing.

By publishing time, according to the World Bank, 58.4 % of national grid infrastructure is available
in the enumeration areas but only about 37.7% of households are connected to the said grid. It was
also worth noting that from August 2019 to May 2020 on average a Zambian neighbourhood would
experience 12-15 hours of load shedding in different intervals. This was also extended to traffic
lights and street lights which are cardinal in ensuing order on the high ways and hence the situation
puts motorists at higher risks of accidents. Hence in this thesis, I will review VAWTS as a possible
source of energy for amenities such as traffic lights and street lights along with high ways.

Primary energy sources can be divided into depleting and renewable energy sources. Depleting
energy sources, like fossil fuels and nuclear, generates up to 78% of the total energy used.
However, there has been an increase in pollution due to the use of these depleting energy sources
and there is also an increasing fear of the extinction of these depleting sources. Renewable sources
like solar, geothermal and wind energy contribute about 22% of the global energy supply (Anon.,
2001). Hence it is only right that this source of energy is harnessed for power production.

There are 7 classes of useful wind speeds. This makes it easy to translate the speeds into numerical
values of the quantity of power per meter square. Below is a table that illustrates this. Actually,
wind is a sub form of solar energy, studies have indicated that about 3% of the energy emitted
from the Sun (thermal) is converted into wind energy. It also further estimated that for locations
under the class 3 wind speed, they have a capacity of producing close to 72 terawatts of electricity
if fully utilized (Stanford Report, 2005).The different classes are shown in the table below which
was an extract from the National Renewable Energy Lab ,USA.

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 Table 1 showing wind speed classes at 30m (National Renewable Energy Lab USA, 2011)

Wind class Wind speed m/s(mph) Power density W/m2

Class 1 0-5.1 0-160
(0-11.4)
Class 2 5.1-5.9 160-240
(11.4-13.2)
Class 3 5.9-6.5 240-320
(13.2-14.6)
Class 4 6.5-7.0 320-400
(14.6-15.7)
Class 5 7.4-8.2 480-640
(16.6-18.3)
Class 6 7.4-8.2 480-640
(16.6-18.3)
Class 7 8.2-11.0 640-1600
(18.3-24.7)

Inserted below are three figures extracted from (GWEC , 2012) and (DOE, 2013) and
(TECHNICA, 2012).The first figure shows the Global Cumulative Capacity of Wind Energy. The
data is plotted against the respective years in which the data was recorded, the second figure shows
the Projected and actual Installation of Wind Energy.

Figure 1 Showing the global wind power cumulative capacity (GWEC , 2012)

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 Figure 2 Projected and actual installation of wind energy (DOE, 2013)

Figure 3 (TECHNICA, 2012)

1.2 Aim
This project aims to design and fabricate a high-way vertical axis wind turbine for power
generation to be consumed by street lights and traffic lights.

For wind energy to be fully utilized, there is a need to minimize the cost of production of wind
turbines by embracing VAWTs and making them as portable as possible and that includes
exploring the idea of installing them on the high way roads where wind trails are abundant.

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1.3 Objectives
The following are the objectives of the project:

• To study the existing designs of VAWTs.

• To identify and study the materials used in the construction of VAWTs.
• To study the manufacturing processes employed in the construction of VAWTs.
• To review the efficiency of high-way VAWTs.
• To come up with a modified design of the high way VAWT.

1.4 Problem statement

Due to the continuous national population growth which is accompanied by the demand for more
electricity domestically and industriously, there is a need for alternative sources of energy to
cushion this exponentially rising deficit of power.

1.5 Motivation
Over the years Zambia and sub-Saharan Africa have experienced droughts or low rainfall which
brings about low water levels in the power generation dams. Subsequently leading to low water
levels or insufficient power generation which has to be mitigated by load shedding or result in a
total shutdown. Hence the motivation for this project is to design wind turbines that will be
appropriate and effective in cities, particularly along high ways to convert the wind draft from
vehicles to generate power. In efficiency terms HAWTs have established dominancy in the wind
turbine industry as VAWTs have been known to only go as high as half the maximum efficiency
of Howsoever, the simplistic designs of the VAWTs offers an attractive attribute worth devoting
time and research on for efficiency improvement purposes.

1.6 Project scope

The scope of this project will focus on the generation of electricity from wind energy coming from
vehicles on roads. Particularly we shall focus on vertical axis wind turbines that are hypothetically
supposed to be placed in the medians of dual carriageways and roadsides.

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Chapter two: Literature review

2.1 Evolution and Development of High way-way VAWTs

Prior to my endeavour to write a thesis on this subject, over the years there have been many other
separate attempts to channel wind draft into energy production on the highways using HAWTs
and VAWTs, particularly for VAWTs the most notable attempt and proposed design was an
animated simulation uploaded on YouTube entitled “Highway Helical Wind Turbine project,
(Mechzion, 2012) the video was done by students from YCET Kollam in the faculty of Mechanical
Engineering and their fabricated prototype is shown below. Another existing design is the state of
Arizona university student model. Unfortunately, this design was rejected because it was difficult
to maintain and the structure would have been sophisticated and costly. The model is shown below

Figure 4 Highway Helical Wind Turbine Project (Mechzion, 2012)

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 .

Figure 6 showing the Arizona state university students’ design (Champagnie, 2013)

2.2 Operation principle of High-way VAWTs.

A VAWT is a type of wind turbine whose rotation is perpendicular to its incident flow. However
fundamentally the physics that guides the rotations in both HAWTs and VAWTs is the same i.e.
the individual blades in both HAWTs and VAWTs turbines do produce lift and drag forces which
in turn generate a torque that is passed on to the alternator or generator. With all the above-
highlighted similarities, VAWTs however possess some advantages over the HAWT system which
include; the ability to rotate regardless of the direction of the incident wind flow, the portability to
mount the system as close to the ground as possible. And the generator can serve as the base hence
no need to install it at the top with the blades and this takes off a considerable amount of weight
from the upper body of the system coupled with economical cost reductions.

2.2.1 Wind Capture; General

The conversion of energy from kinetic energy to electrical energy in VAWTs follows the normal
simplistic routine. The movement of cars towards and away the VAWTs initiates a wind draft that
in turn rotates the shaft that is installed perpendicularly to the inflow wind. From here the kinetic
energy from the wind is converted to mechanical energy in the turbine and the mechanical is
henceforth converted to electrical energy in the generator or alternator.

2.2.2 Operation Principle of The Darrieus Turbine.

These are more so than often referred to as the egg beater, the operation principle that mainly
characterizes the Darrieus is the lift aerodynamic force that is in turn responsible for its rotation.
In these blades, drag can be considered negligible due to the shape of the blades. However, once
rotation has been initiated, they can out-speed the wind that is fed to them.

6
2.2.3 Operation Principle of the Savonius Turbine
These can at times have helical blades but mostly they are “S” shaped with an offset in between
them. They operate fully on resistance to the wind or rather drag. VAWTs can rotate in any direction
and this makes These features allows for minimized power loss during the
time it would take to orient a HAWT into the frequently changing upwind directions or with deal
(Datta, 2002) .The absence of yaw control significantly simplifies the VAWT design (Fartaj,
2006)

2.3 Types of VAWTs

In this thesis, we are going to narrow the types of turbines to three as indicated in the image extract
below.

Figure 5 showing the different type of VAWTs (Castellani, 2019)

2.3.1 Darrieus-rotor
The second type is the Darrieus-rotor, this type of rotor is very light in terms of weight but is not
self-starting and hence requires external mechanical aid to initiate rotation. They are named after
the man that invented them, Mr. George Jean Darrieus who invented them in 1931. One of the
most attractive attributes of this turbine is that it can reciprocate the speed of wind many times
more to compensate for their inability to self-start Because of its higher Cp, a Darrieus makes a
better VAWT choice for extracting power from the wind (Bernhoff, 2006).

7
Figure 6 showing major components of a Darrieus turbine ((Surge Journals, 2011)

Figure 7 Darrius rotor type ((Surge Journals, 2011)

8
2.3.2 The Savonius rotor
The first type is the Savonius rotor, in this type, the blades are “S” shaped, usually two conjoined
blades but could be four or six depending on preference. These are self-starting which means they
can initiate rotation upon receiving incident flows without the need for external help. They were
patented for by Sigurd Johannes Savonius in 1922. The predominant force in this configuration is
the drag force. Three different designs of the Savonius blades are shown below.

Figure 8 Savonius rotor two layers ((Surge Journals, 2011)

Figure 9 shows the double layer Savonius turbine (Verticalwindturbine-info, 2020)

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 Figure 10 shows a Savonius single layer turbine (Verticalwindturbine-info, 2020)

2.3 The H type Darrieus

The third type is the “H” rotor or H Darrieus which is a modification of the Darrieus rotor, whilst
the fourth type is the Helix shaped rotor which like the name suggests utilizes a helical streamlined
geometrical blade.

Figure 11 “H” Darrieus rotor (Techplore, 2020)

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The two main types of VAWTs mainly differ in physical designs. However, another way in which
they differ is how they interact with the wind. As earlier mentioned, in Savonius blades, drag is
the dominant force where as in Darrieus blades lift is dominant, an image extract showing this is
attached below.

Figure 12 Lift and Drag in VAWTs (luvside, 2015)

2.4 Efficiencies and Costs of The Different Types of VAWTs.

The Savonius rotor is the least efficient amongst the listed VAWTs, however, it is the most
economical and easiest to fabricate. The H type and helical have both moderate costs and
efficiencies. The Darrieus-rotor on the other hand has the highest efficiency and ultimately the
highest manufacturing cost. Major Components of The VAWTs. Generally, Furthermore, VAWT
blade design and fabrication is usually easier than HAWT blades (Cheremisinoff, 1978).However
the major constraint is that the most suitable VAWTs for power generation are not self-initiating
in terms of rotation. The types of VAWTs hence it is necessary for an external to start their blades
spinning upon interacting with a breeze (Mathew, 2006).

2.5 Wind Resource Mapping Done by The World Bank in Zambia.

In the year 2016, for a period of 12 months, the world bank carried out a resource wind pattern
mapping in a few selected areas in Zambia, and these are included, Lusaka, Choma, Mwinilunga,
and Mpika. In the table attached below, the various parameters and their corresponding results are
shown.

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Table 2 showing Wind Resource at the meteorological masts located at Choma, Mwinilunga,
Lusaka, and Mpika (ESMAP, 2018)

Table 3 showing the wind resource at the meteorological masts located at Chanka, Petauke,
Mansa, and Malawi (ESMAP, 2018)

2.6 Improvements and modifications made to VAWTs

Several VAWTs specialists have tried to come up with ways to maximize the efficiency of VAWTs
and considerable improvements have been observed when the two main types of VAWTs are
simultaneously used in a hybrid VAWTs. The TPR is noticed to be 1 or more. Another noteworthy
feat is the considerable increase in Cp values. With such improvements, the Cp can shoot as high
as 0.50 in high cost and carefully designed VAWTs. An offset should be provided between the
Savonius blades as By having an air gap of 16 percent between the Savonius rotor buckets attached
to the Darrieus shaft, Cp was seen at 0.3403 along with a tip speed ratio of 0.305. However, by
extracting the air between the Savonius rotor buckets and replacing it with a Darrieus rotor, an
impressive Cp of 0.51 with a tip speed ratio of 0.62 was realized (Biswas, 2008). A Savonius-
Darrieus VAWT combination would have many benefits over a solo Savonius or Darrieus rotor.
A Savonius produces high torque that would be useful when starting itself.

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 Figure 13 A hybrid Savonius/Darrieus VAWT (www.Wikipedia.com)

2.7 Analytical equations

The various relevant equations and formulae will be discussed and derived in this section. These
equations guide on how much power can be produced by the turbines. The analytical equations do
account for limitations involved in wind power as well.

2.8.1 Derivation of Wind turbine Power and The Bertz Limit

Wind turbines work by changing over the dynamic vitality in the breeze into rotational motor
vitality in the turbine and afterward electrical vitality that can be provided, employing the public
framework. Under consistent increasing speed, the kinetic energy of an object E, having mass m
and speed v is equivalent to the work done W in uprooting that object from rest to a separation s
under a power F, i.e.: E=W=Fs

As per Newton's Law, we have:

F=ma

Henceforth,

E=mas… … (1)

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Utilizing the third condition of motion:

V 2 = u2 + 2𝑎𝑠

Making “a” subject of the equation, we get:

v 2 − u2
a=
2s

Since the underlying speed of the item is zero, for example

u = 0, we get:

v2
a = 2s

Substituting it into condition (1) we get:

1
E = 2 mv 2

The force P of the breeze is given by the rate of progress of the work, in this way:

dE 1 2 dm
P= = v
dt 2 dt

We realize that mass stream rate:

dm
= ρAv
dt

Thus power, P:

1
P = ρAv 3
2

Albert Betz (a German Physicist) finished up in 1919 that no wind turbine can change over more
than 59.3% of the dynamic vitality of the breeze into mechanical energy turning a rotor. This is
known as the Betz Limit or Betz' Law and it is as yet pertinent right up 'til the present time. The

14
hypothetical most extreme force proficiency of any plan of wind turbine is 0.59 (for example close
to 59% of the vitality conveyed by the breeze can be separated by wind turbine). This is known as
the "power coefficient" and is characterized as: Cp max= 0.59

Figure 14 Cp Values for Given Wind Turbines (Champagnie, 2013)

Confirmation of this is demonstrated as follows:

Cp= ½ (1 + λ)(1 − λ2 )

dCp 1
Discovering = 0 and settling for λ, we get λ=3
dλ

Subbing this incentive into our condition we get Cp max = 0.593. Wind turbines can't work at this
greatest breaking point. The Cp esteem is one of a kind to every turbine type and is an element of
wind speed that the turbine is working in. When we fuse different building necessities of a breeze
turbine - quality and solidness specifically – this present reality limit is well beneath the Betz Limit
with estimations of 0.35-0.45 normal even in the best-structured breeze turbines. When we
consider, different variables in a total breeze turbine framework - for example, the gearbox, course,
and generator, etc. - just 10-30% of the intensity of the breeze is ever really changed over into
usable power. Henceforth, the force coefficient should be figured into our Power condition and the
extractable force from the breeze is given by:

15
 1
P = 2 ρAv 3 Cp

Where P is the force separated from the breeze; ρ is the thickness of the air; v is the speed; CP is
the force coefficient, and A is the cleared zone of the edges which can be determined from the
edge

2.8.2 Power Curve: During the turbine design process a factor called power factor is very
important. This is used to estimate the power of the turbine being designed and is expressed as
follows:

1
𝑃 = 2 ∗ 𝐶 P∗ 𝜂 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑉 3

Cp=coefficient of power

A=swept area of the turbine

P =density of the air [kg/m3]

V=undistributed wind speed:

η = efficiency of the generator.

This enshrines all the turbines that will be discussed in this thesis.

Figure 15 shows an example of a power curve of a 200kw turbine (Champagnie, 2013)

16
2.9 Correlation of power and wind speed (Power density)
1
From the already derived equation of power in terms of speed, density and area P = 2 ρAv 3 ,it can

be deduced that power varies with a change equivalent to a cube of the windspeed velocity. In this
equation if we take the swept area to be 1m2 then this parameter becomes power density or specific
power.

2.10.0 Tip Speed Ratio

This is the comparator between the speed of the outer most tip of the blade and that of the wind.
This ratio is proportional to the efficiency. However, tip speeds of high values are responsible for
increased noise levels and hence would require blades of higher strength.

It is given as:

𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑝 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝜋∗𝑟𝑝𝑚∗𝐷

=
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 60𝑣

17
Chapter 3: Methodology

3.1 Proposed Design.

The proposed design comprises only the Savonius blades for cost-effective reasons. An alternator
of 12v and 0.55 amps is attached in the nacelle for demonstrative purposes. It utilizes two Savonius
blades attached but leaving an offset in between them for wind recirculation purposes. In the
nacelle, a pulley drive system is installed between the shaft and the alternator. For friction
reduction, the shaft is passed through two plain bearings.

3.1.1 CAD: Solid works

Solid works 2018 package was used to produce the turbine CADs .The initially proposed design
had incorporated both, the Savonius and the Darrieus blades to maximize efficiency due to the
high efficiency associated with the latter, however, due to cost-effective measures and feasibility
studies, the final design was without the Darrrieus blades. Inserted below are the various images
of the proposed prototype design of the machine produced on solid works 2018 software

Figure 16 CAD isometric view (solid works 2018)

18
Figure 17 Solid works first design CAD

19
 Figure 18 bottom view of the modified design

Nacelle Savonius blades

Figure 19 Isometric view of the modified final design

20
 Figure 20 CAD isometric view

Figure 21 CAD end elevation view

21
 Alternator pulley drive system Savonius blades

Shaft bearings

Figure 22 CAD elevation sectional view

3.2 Power in The Wind

It is worth noting that the most important parameter in VAWTS is wind speed. Usually it is
assumed that the average speed on the high way is 5m/s, the equation is given by

1
Pw=2 ∗ 𝜌𝐴sv3

Where:

PW= average wind power of the wind.

As= Swept area by the blades.

If we assume air in the wind to be at standard room temperature and pressure, i.e. STP =20 degrees
Celsius which is equivalent to 293 kelvins, the respective density becomes 1.204/m3 Pascal’s of
101.3 kpa If we replace the above values in the average power equation, we get Pw=0.602AsV3

22
Taking our design area as 0.21m2 since our Savonious blades are 26cm each, making a sweep
diameter of 52cm or 0.52m. Also taking 5m/s as the average wind velocity on the highway, we
can now calculate the wind power of our turbine as 0.602(0.21)(5.0)3 but due to the Bertz
efficiency, at optimum, the wind turbine can only extract about 59.3% power so we multiply 0.593
to the earlier theoretical value which gives us a value of joules or watts per second, hence the need
for pulleys or step up gears. The maximum possible efficiency for the rotor is given by;

1
P= ρAv 3 Cp
2
1 0.522
Pth = × 1.204 × π ( ) × (5.03 ) × 0.593 =1.6736 watts
2 4

3.3 Savonius blades design

The blades were designed with an eccentricity of one-third of the diameter of the individual blade.
That is to allow air entering on one side to be recirculated to the other side where it exists, the
number of blades used was 2.The less the number of blades the faster the speed, however, a single
blade would need a counterweight balance that would, in the long run, be equivalent to two blades.

Figure 23 Savonius blades analytical (ELMaHer-Designs, 2018)

23
The wind flow streams can be noticed to be as shown below. The simulation was done on solid
works 2018.The air could be seen entering one side of the blade, bouncing off its wall and then re-
enter the other side of the blade through the offset

Figure 24 Solid works illustration of wind flow in the Savonius blades.

3.4.1 The Shaft

The shaft is made of stainless steel. It’s purpose of involvement is to transmit power from the
moving blades. Which it then transmits to the alternator which in my case is a 12v bicycle dynamo.
The shaft used in this project is 10 mm thick and 650 mm long. It is welded to a conical collar at
the top most center of the of the offset of the two blades, the collar is also welded to the blades.
The shaft passes through the center of the blades and also of two 10mm journal bearings are used.
A weldment right underneath the bottom bearing locks it into to prevent it from falling off in the
event of increased torque. A 140mm pulley is attached through welding to the shaft. Normal,
torsional shear and bending stresses are expected to act on the shaft from the loads being applied.
Also, I took into consideration the distortion energy failure theorem to thoroughly assess the shaft.

𝑃
Using 𝑇 = 𝑤 ,we can calculate the torque acting on the shaft.

3.4.2 Bearings
Two 10 mm bore Deep Groove ball bearings were used to reduce the friction of the shaft and also
facilitate rotation. The lubrication regime used was semi-solid, grease particularly. One bearing
was positioned at the top of the nacelle, welded to it and receiving the shaft as the first point of
24
entry into the nacelle. The second bearing holds the protruding part of the shaft coming from the
pulley.it is welded to two bars and the shaft passes through it. The alternative bearing type that can
be used is the deep bearing groove 6200 10mm. This can be selected from the SKF bearing catalog
that is shown below underneath the bearing image.

Deep groove bearing

Figure 25 Showing a plain bearing (SKF Catalog,2019)

Table 4 Deep groove Bearing selection (SKF,2019)
Designation Bore Outside Width Dynamic Static Reference Limiting
d diameter B Load load speed speeds
D C C0
mm mm mm N N r/min r/min
628 8 24 8 3900 1660 63000 40000
629 9 26 8 4750 1960 60000 38000
6200 10 30 9 5400 2360 56000 36000
6201 12 32 10 7280 3100 5000 32000

3.4.3 Pulleys and belt

The principle function of the pulleys and belt is to transfer motion from the shaft to the alternator,
since the speed of the shaft is relatively slow, the pulley is expected to step up the speed of the
alternator. The pulley on the shaft is 140mm diameter and that on the alternator is 60mm diameter.

𝑛2 𝐷1
The equation 𝑛1 = 𝐷2

25
Is used to calculate the speed, where n is the corresponding speed of pulley and D is the diameter.
An image

Figure 26 showing pulley drive

3.4.4 The nacelle (Pulley housing)

This is the housing box, housing the alternator, pulleys, and lower part of the shaft It is made of
mild steel and is positioned at the bottom of the turbine. It has dimensions of 600 by 350 mm. It is
expected to protect the alternator from damage and other physical interferences.

Figure 27 The nacelle

26
3.4.5 Alternator (Dynamo)
The alternator is the component that converts the rotational mechanical energy from the blades to
the shaft into electrical energy, the electricity produced is of alternating form and if it is to be
stored in batteries, an inverter is needed to change to direct current. The rating of the dynamo
utilized was 12v and 0.5 amps, i.e. 6 watts power. A smaller pulley relative to that attached to the
shaft is attached to the alternator to receive transferred motion from the shaft.

Figure 28 Bicycle dynamo of 12 v,0.55 amps

3.5 Fabrication and selection of materials

The material used to make the turbine due to cost-effective reasons was mild steel, however,
ideally, aluminum is preferred due to its lightweight. For the shaft, stainless steel was used due to
its strength. Mild steel was used for the nacelle and everything else that needed to be fabricated.

The joining methods used involved welding mostly, riveting was necessary in the edges of the
nacelle. Also, bolt and nuts were used in holding the top part of the nacelle to the frame, the
dynamo was bolted to the nacelle and is removable. The fabricated prototype measured 52 cm in
the overall diameter of the two blades,32 cm in height of the blades, the nacelle measure 65cm
length, 34cm width, and 34 cm in height.

27
 Figure 29 Fabricated prototype side view Figure 30 Fabricated prototype end elevation

Figure 31 Fabricated view bottom view

28
3.6 Tools used to measure the Output
To obtain results, the following tools were used; digital multimeter, led lights and a centrifugal fan. The
tools were obtained locally and met the local ratings standards. An anemometer could not be purchased
however.

3.6.1 The digital multimeter

This is a multi-purpose electron device that can measure continuity, voltage, resistance, and
current, ranging from millivolts to kilovolts. The version used was DT9201 auto power off. An
image of the same is inserted below

Figure 32 Digital multi-meter

3.6.2 Led lights

These lights were also used to detect output, their ratings ranged from 5v to 6v. Led lights were chosen
due to their ease to light up in the presence of minimal voltage and current. They were selected carefully
to avoid damage from excessive voltage.

29
Figure 33 Led lights

30
Chapter 4: Testing and Results
Three parameters were tested against the varying rpms of the machine. These included voltages,
current and power. power. The results were plotted on graphs and recorded in tables as shown
below.

Table 5 Recorded outputs

RPM 180 140 116 104 86
Voltage(V) 2.37 2.16 1.72 1.53 1.08
Current 0.17 0.14 0.13 0.108 0.08
(Amps)
Power (W) 0.40 0.30 0.22 0.17 0.09

4.1.1 Graph of voltage vs rpm

The plot of the aforementioned was characterized by a proportionate drop in voltage with rpm of
the turbine and vice versa with an increase in rpm.

Voltage vs rpm graph

200
180
160
140
120
Rpm

100
80
60
40
20
0
2.37 2.16 1.72 1.53 1.08
Volatge

Figure 34 Table 6 Voltage vs Rpm chart

31
4.1.2 Graph of Current vs Rpm
The plot of the aforementioned was characterized by a proportionate drop in current with rpm of
the turbine and vice versa with an increase in rpm.

200

180

160

140

120
RPM

100

80

60

40

20

0
0.017 0.14 0.13 0.108 0.08
CURRENT

Figure 35 Current vs Rpm

4.1.3 Graph of Power vs Rpm.

The graph showing the relationship between power and the Rpm is plotter below, power is taken
as the product of the voltage and current. The plot of the aforementioned was characterized by a
proportionate drop in power with rpm of the turbine and vice versa with an increase in rpm

32
 power vs rpm

200
180 180
160
140 140
120 116
RPM

100 104
80 86

60
40
20
0
0.4 0.3 0.22 0.17 0.09
POWER

Figure 36 Power vs Rpm

4.2 Calculated Efficiencies

Generally, efficiency is a measure of useful output relative to the gross input. For the Savonius turbine,
two efficiencies shall be measured. Namely these are Generator efficiency and Rotor efficiency.

4.2.1 Generator efficiency

Efficiency was calculated as the ratio of the maximum power recorded to the power rating of the
power(maximum recorded)
alternator ; ∗ 100
power(alternator rating)

Replacing the values that were earlier recorded in the results table and also the ratings of the alternator
0.4𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
we get;𝐸 = =6.6 %
6𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠

4.2.2 Rotor Efficiency

If we assume the rotor efficiency (Cp) to be 0.3 which is the assigned Cp for Savonius rotors, the swept area to
be 0.21 since the swept diameter to be 0.52 m and the velocity of wind on the average velocity on the high way to
be 5m/s then the maximum theoretical power of the rotor becomes;

1
P= ρAv 3 Cp
2

33
 1 0.522
Pth = × 1.225 × π ( ) × (53 ) × 0.593 =0.847 watts
2 4

Thus, to get the rotor efficiency we shall make a ratio of the actual maximum power we recorded
in the table to the maximum theoretical power of the Savonius blades with respect to the assigned
Cp of 0.3 or 30%.

maximum actual power ouput 0.4

maximum theoretical power for Savonius blades ∗ 100=0.847= 47%

4.3 Discussion
Reviewing closely the two calculated efficiencies we can deduce that in terms of the
generator(alternator) efficiency, the machine does not even come close to the maximum power
output, this could be attributed to several factors such as dynamo reliability itself. Another factor
that could have contributed to this is the pulley drive system, particularly the tightness of the belt
and the speed ratio of the pulleys. In this machine, the belt was too stiff and was found to be lagging
in some cases. One more factor that is worth looking into is the lubrication regime, since plain
bearings were used, and the load was ideally light a liquid lubricant could easily replace the semi-
solid lubricant of grease. This efficiency had to do more with the transmission of power to the
alternator, hence replacing the alternator with a better one with respect to power generation would
significantly reduce the losses.

In terms of the rotor efficiency, the calculated value was 47%, which is relatively good. With the
use of lighter materials such as carbon-reinforced fiber, this value would shoot higher. Mild steel
is too dense but economical, hence the dilemma lies between whether to have a cheaper design or
an efficient but costly one.

Conclusively, from the voltage and current values obtained, it can be noted that the efficiency of
the machine is not sufficient enough to power up the most used appliances or even lights due to
various underlying factors such as the heavier material used for the blades. Aluminum was initially
proposed for the turbine blades but due to economical constraints mild steel was used.

34
Chapter 5: Recommendations, and Conclusion.

5.1 Challenges and Constraints

Every design project or process comes with its own challenges and constraints. These are always
there regardless of how much one plans. Below are some of the constraints and challenges I
encountered.

5.1.1 Covid-19; Coronavirus

The Covid-19 pandemic has been a tremendous source of several challenges, some of these
included; -

I. Closure of universities

This robbed me of valuable time and access to research facilities and statistics. Also resulted into
a compressed academic year.

II. Restriction of movement and access to relevant places.

I could not visit most manufacturing companies and industries to assess materials due to the social
distancing rules.

III. The fluctuation of the Kwacha against the dollar

This factor raised the overall cost of the project by over 50%, I was unable to order from e-bay the
appropriate alternator for the turbine, due to the huge appreciation of the dollar. Another
contribution to the challenges was the closure of the workshop, which meant that entirely the
fabrication was to be done in paid-for workshops outside the university.

5.1.2 Miscommunication
Rehabilitation works at our school workshop made it impossible to fabricate the machine within
the school, hence alternatives included outsourced labor and workshop hiring, however more so
than often I had to leave my designs with the fabricator who could not fluently translate the modern
CADs efficiently and at times would deliberately get cheaper but poor materials to save
dishonestly save money.

35
5.1.3 Financial constraints
Due to delayed crediting of the project allowance, the purchasing of materials and fabrication was
done late. Also, the cost of aluminum or carbon-reinforced fiber was excessively beyond my
financial capacity nor that of the project allowance. Hence, I opted for cheaper but poor material
such as mild steel for the blades.

5.2 Conclusion
Definitively, broad information was gathered on wind designs created by vehicles on the two sides
of the interstate. Utilizing the gathered information, a Savonius wind turbine is intended to be put
on the medians of the highway. Evidently, one turbine may not give sufficient power. However, a
group of turbines on a long piece of the median on the roadway can produce a huge measure of
usable power that when stored in batteries with the help of an inverter can be utilized in powering
up streetlights and other similarly rated appliances, even create. This structure idea is intended to
be practical and naturally well disposed of. Moreover, a Savonius turbine controlled by drag could
have more uses other than the primary one, such as charging of phones for pedestrians.
Hypothetically any moving vehicle can control the turbine, for example, an event congregation
ride or cargo train. The expressway wind turbine can be used to give power in any metropolitan
city around the world where there is high vehicle traffic. Hence the limitation to this project is
vehicle traffic and hence is not practical in rural or countryside.

5.3 Recommendations
Conclusively, a well-designed gear system would work better than the pulley system I installed
due to the high efficiency of the gear mating system, the pulley system incurred losses due to the
lagging and slip of the belt on the pulleys. Also, the cp value of Savonius blades is lower than the
Darrieus blades, hence they should be preferred in the future improvement of this project. The
material of the blades should never be compromised at all costs as such would deter the rotor
efficiencies.

36
References
(Surge Journals, 2011. Darrius rotor turbines. Major components of the Darrius rotor turbines.

Bernhoff, H. E. S. &. L. M., 2006. Evaluation of different turbine concepts, s.l.: s.n.

Biswas, 2008. Improvements for VAWTs, s.l.: s.n.

Castellani, F., 2019. researchgate.com. Experimental Vibration Analysis of a Small Scale Vertical Wind
Energy System for Residential Use, 7(Machines).

Champagnie, B., 2013. Arizona state university student realistic design, s.l.: s.n.

Champagnie, B., 2013. Highway Wind Energy, s.l.: Florida International University.

Cheremisinoff, N. P., 1978. Fundamentals ofwind energy , s.l.: Ann Arbo.

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ELMaHer-Designs, 2018. ElMaHer youTube channel. [Online]

Available at: https://youtu.be/N95uak5IwyE

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National Renewable Energy Lab USA, 2011. wind speed classes at 30m, s.l.: s.n.

Richard G. Budynas, J. K., 2012. Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design. . New York:McGraw-Hill:
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TECHNICA, 2012. Wind Energy Generation Capacity by Country , s.l.: s.n.

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37
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38
Appendix A
The figure below shows projections of energy output at the locations where wind power generation
feasibility was achieved (a 25m turbine wind farm was assumed).

Table 6 showing the energy production estimates (ESMAP, 2018)

Appendix B: Bill of costs

Table 7 Showing the budget

39
Appendix C: Gantt chart
Table 8 Showing the Gantt chart

40