trhSffiilpem

I Volume3

-l

t 1VIAGNETICPARTICLE
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
t
I Multimediatraining coursefor magnetic-particletestingoperators, based
I on Saipem'smultimediasoftwareof the same title

I
1998,TrainingCentreuE.Gandolfi"

I coHrEMAGctoRE

T
I
INDEX

I
.Fffirtr#r-Pf,ff s #s' -ffif,^sfr f.ffi o T . E # . # g . l t f , . r c s
T l,l.Naturd magnctlsm g

1.1.f. Magnets 3
1.f .2. Magneilc lleld 4

t 1.2. Electrlctty end nr8Fctlem

1.2.1. Rectlllnearconductor
6

7
I.2.2. lnop I
1.2.3. Cotl I
L.2.4. Solenold I
ro
t 1.2.5.
f .2.6.
Toroldal cotl
Magnetomotiveforce ll

l2
1.8. Magnetlc propertlc* of mrterlrle

f .3.f . Fenomagnetlsm l2
1.3.2. MagneHcinductton r3

I 1.3-3.
f .3.4.
MagneUchysterestslooP
Magnetic flux
l5
t7

l.4.Electrlc crrrcnt r9

1.4.f . Introductton l9
1.4.2. Dlrect current 20

t f .4.3. AlternatJn$ current

1.4.4. RectlJledcurrent
1.4.5. Measurtnglnstnrments
20
22
22

l.d.Stendard urttg

I
I
't
I

f r f r A # J v . rf rf if l I r a R r r c r " , ^ E f f - t r A f i f r ; v - ar r # . w

Stage .I
,zg
t 2.l.Plece crsmlnatlon

2.1.f . Examtnation Prlnctple 29

2,I,2. Crlterla for the plece et(aminatlon 32

Stage 2
I 2.2.Selcctton sf mngiletlzatlon nethods and technlquee 83

2.2,1, Examtnationmethods 33
2.2.2. Magnettzatlon methods 34
2.2.3. TlPes of magnettzatton 35
Current-flow method techniques 35
t 2.2.4.
2.2.5.
2.2,6,
Magneilc-Ileld method techntques
Magnetrdngcurrents
38
40

Stage I
2.S.Selectlon of the equtPnent 48
I 2.3.1. MagneilcParticles 43
45
2,3,2. Characteflstics of the partlcles
2.3.3. Ltghting lamPs 47
2,3,4. Examlnatlon equlPment 49

t S,tage 4
ss
2.4. Erenlnatlon procedure rud evaluatlon of the teet rceults

2.4.7. Practical nrles for magnetlzatlon 53

2.4.2. Checking the magneuztnglleld 55

t 2.4.3. $equenceof operations

Surface preParatlon
Checktng for resldual flelds
57
57
58
58
Magnetlzation and spraytng (continuous method)
Vtsual lnspectton (conttnuous method) 59
Magnettzauon, spraying and visual tnspecUonwtth restdual method 60
DemagnetlzatJon 60

I 2,4.4.
Protective treatment
Evaluatjon of the test results
6r
61

GI,()SSARY 7l

- More trreoty
APPETYDTx a1
I

I
I

I
Module1

t
PRINCIPLESOF ELECTHOTECH
NICS

t
I
 PrincipIes of eIectote chnics

l 1.1. NATURALMAGNETISM

1.1.1.Magnets

In naturethereare somematerials smallironparticleswhen

thatare capableof attracting
I these are left in the proximityof the materialitself.Thesematerialsare calledmagnets,
and this propertyof theirsdoesnot characterise theirentiresudacebut only two opposite
zones,calledmagneticPoles.

A smallmagnet,when it is far from Geographic

t other magnets and free to rotate
arounda verticalaxis, alway$stops
north

and pointsto the samedirection.

Thisis why magnetscan be usedas

compasses:the end pointing to
I north is called nofth pole (N), the
end pointingto southis calledsoufh
pola (S).

I Usingtwo magnets,or two magneticneedles,you can easilyverifythat like poles repel

I one anotherwhileunlikepolesattract.

Likemagneticpolesrepeloneanother

Unlikemagneticpoles attractone another

Saipe4 Training &ntre E. Gandolfi

 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTTVETESTING

t Geographic
Earth's mngneticfield Magnetic north
southpole

The Earthcan be considersdas an enormousmagnetwith

I the south magneticpole at the noilh geographicpole and
viceversa.

The noilh pole of a magnetic needle points toward the

geographicnorthbecauseit is attractedby the Eailh'ssouth
magneticpole,

I Geographic
sonth
Magnetic
northpole

alsohavethepeculiarity
Magnets thatwhentheyarebrokenintosmallerfragments,each
I fragmentstill behaveslikea magnetandhas its ownpoles.At any furtherdivisionthe
I phenomenon is repeatedanda newpairof polesis produced.
The phenomenoncan be better
understoodif we consider the magnet
Ebmentary
magnet as being composed of ffi
t manysmallerelementarymagnets,
arrangedso that the adjacentpoles
insidethemnullifyoneanother.

lf, vice ver$a,we put two magnets

togetherjoiningthe oppositepoles,
I we obtainonesinglemagnet.

1.1.2.Magneticfield

As we haveseen,two closemagnetstendto repel(or to attract)one another.This means

that a magnetexerts attractionor repulsionforces on anothermagnet placed in the
vicinity.

The regionarounda magnet,wtreretheseforcesare exerted,is calledmagneticfield,and

I can be shownby placinga sheetof papercoveredwithironfilingson the magnet.

The particlesarrangealonglinesthat connectthe two poles.Theselines,calledlinesof

force,followa precisepattern:they emergeat the northpoleand go hack in at the south
pole, as we could see if we placedmanycompassesalongthe lines and obseruedthe
orientationof theirneedles.

E. Gandolfi
Centre
Sotryr+Training
 Principles of electrotechnics

Linesof forceof the magneticfield

I
A magnetic fieldis definedin eachpointby the intensity
and
directionof the forceactingin thatpointand it's represented S- tn* vector
H
bytheletterH.
t The directionof the field,as it can be easilyseenin the examplewith the compasses,is
tangentto the linesof force.

I More details

.
Linstengentto a curve

Givena curueyand a poinlP on thecurye,if lis a circumference

(or an arc of the circumterence)having its centre in O, the
tangentto y in P is the linepassingthroughP and perpendicular
to the radiusOP.

I r lf l is a genericcurue,we fix trlo pointsQ and H on 1on opposite

sideswith respectto P, andwe drewthelinePQandthe linePR. \1/
lf we moveQ and R alongthe curue,bdngingthemcloserto P,
we can see that the lines PQ and PH get closerto each other, rfl\
I too.

It we keepmwing Q and H closerto P, the two linesPQ and PH

/ , \

coincide.

I
The line pq = PR is the tangentto l in P. Tansent
in P

ffi / , \

t
Thisis a reference
markto additionalpages in theappendix.
ontheory,available

I E. Gandolfi
SarrynTrainingCentre
 NDT _ MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

I Field betweenunlike poles

Two magnetshaving the oppositepoles close to

each other generate a magneticfiled wlrich is
viftuallyuniform(constant).
t A uniformfield is representedby parallellines of
forceequidistant fromeachother.

II Field betweenlike poles

I
The schemeshowsthe linesof force of a magnetic
field generatedby two magnetshaving their like
polescloseto eachother(right),

Ringmagnet

lf a bar magnetis bent so that its polesare close

I together,we havea ringmagnet.
t In this way we can have, with a singlemagnet,a
uniformmagneticfield (paralleland equidistantlines
of force)similarto the field createdby placingthe
oppositepolesof two magnetscloseto eachother.
I

AND MAGNETISIIII
1.2. ELECTRICITY

il Whenwe place a magnetnext to a magneticneedlewhichis free to rotate,the needle

pointsto a certaindirectionwhichis the direction fieldin thatpoint.
of the magnetic

Let us now replacethe magnetwith an electriccircuit,composedof a conductorwire

havingits endsconnectedto the batteryterminals. lf no currentflowsthroughthe circuit

t (i.e.the circuitis open)the needledoesnot rotate.Assoonas we closethe circuitwe can

observethatthe needleorientationchangesandthis indicatesthe existenceof a magnetic
field in the regionaroundthe wire.This phenomenon is knownas magneticeffectof the
electriccurrent.

I Note It wasthe DanishPhysicistH.C.Oerdedwho,in 1820,discweredthat the electriccurrentcan

generatea magneticfield. This discwery gave the first evidenceof the close relationship
between electrical and magnelic phenomena.A few years later (18ill), M. Faraday
demonstrated that usingmagnetstt waspossibleto producean electdcalcunentin a circuit.

I SaipewTrainingCentreE. Gandolfi
t-
Principles of electrotechnics

I 1.2.1.Rectilinearconductor

The geometryof magneticfields dependson the shape of the electriccircuitthat

generatesit.

I A rectilinearconductorcreatesin the surroundingregiona

magneticfield representedby circularand concentriclines
of force,lyingin planesperpendicular
to thewire,havingits
centreon the conductingwire.

lf I is the Gurrentintensity,we havethat in a pointa at a

l distance r from the wire,the magneticfield H has the
followingmagnitude:

H =*J- [A/m] (Biot-savart

taw)
2tst

r This field is cylindricaland is calledthe Brbf-$avartfield,

afterthe namesof the two scientistswfio werethe first to
studyits properties,in the beginningof the 19hcentury.

I
The magneticfield is perpendicular to the axis of the
conductorin any point (thefield is tangentto the linesof
r forceandtheselie on planesperpendicular to the wire),
-
-

Dlrealon ol the magnetlcfhld at plnt

t The directionof the lines of force is easily detectedby

applyingthe right-handrule: if we imagineto hold the
conductorin our righthand,so thatthe thumbpointsto in
the directionof the currentflow,the fingerswill be pointing
I in the rotationdirectionof the linesof forceof the magnetic
field.

lf we invert the direction of the current flow in the

conductor,the direction of the lines of force is also
inverted.
I

I Saipem Training CcwreE. Gandolfi

 NDT * MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON-DESTRUCTTVETESTING

t 1.2.2.Loop

wire is woundintoa loop,the magneticfieldacquiresthe shapeshown

lf the conducting
below.

I
ol the llnee at lorce

I rilredlan ottltp currcnl

llneedlorw clwd
aroundthe lon,p

t All the lines of force pass throughthe surfaceencircledby the loop and close aroundit
(linesclosedaroundthe loop).

The right-handruleholdsvalidalsofor the loop,and in this casewhenthe fingerspointto

the directionof the currentflowthe thumbtellsthe direction
of the linesof force.
I lf r is the radiusof the loop,the magnitude
of the magneticfield H in the centreof the
loopis:

H =I tr/ml
I 2r

Alongthe axisof the loopthe fieldis maximumin the vicinityof the centreof the loopand
if we moveto the rightor to the left of that pointit decreasessharply;alongthe diameter
of the loopthe fieldis minimumin the centreandhighernearthe loopitself.

I
centre of ttre loop

I Field along the axisof the loop Fieldalong the diameterof the loop

I SorprmTrainingCenlreE Gandolfi
 Principl es of electot echnics

1.2.3.Coil
Bywindingmoreturnstogetherwe havea coilwhichcanbe of theflat (pancake) type,if
the turnsare closetogether,
or elongated. The magneticfield,in bothcases,is closed
aroundthe turns,because the linesof forceforma loopthatflowsthroughthe coiland
closesoutsideit.

Elongatedcoil Pancakenil

of the magneticfield producedby the

lf a coil is composedof N turns,the magnitude
currentflow I is, at the centreof theturns:

NrI
H= IA/mr
2t

This relationship
showsthata certainmagnitude H of the magneticfieldcan be obtained,
giventhe same coil radius,with coilshavinga high numberof turns and low-intendty
currentflowingthroughthemor withcoilshavingfew turnsand a higher-intensity current
flow.

Thefollowingrelationship
is therefore
valid:

N,xf, = N, xI,

The product N x I is calledampere-turn[At] and, as we will see, is a very important

parameterin magneticparticletestingapplications.

1.2.4.Solenoid

ratiogreaterthan 10 is calledsolenoid.The linesof force

A longcoil witha length/radius
in the magneticfieldprogressively
arrangeparallelto the solenoidinternalaxisand close
outsidethe solenoid.

SarrymTrainingCentreE, Gandotrft
 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON-DESTRUCTIVETESTING

Givena solenoidof lengthI, the magnitude

of thefieldalongits axisis:

Nxr
H= IA/mr
I

The field magnituderemainsconstantalong the solenoidbody but at its ends it

progressively
decreasesto zero.

Note In a 'pancake'coil the field H alongthe axis is more similarto that of a turn than to that of a
solenoid:in fact it is maximumat the coll internalpointsand decreasessharplytorrardsthe
ends. The operators must rememberthis when they apply the various magnetization
techniques.

1.2.5.Toroidalcoil

lf a solenoidis bent so that it acquiresa

doughnut shape,wehavea toroidal coil.
l,
r In thiscasethemagnetic fieldsdevelopsonly
insidethe solenoid,
withcircularand closed
lines of force,while outsidethe coil it is
almostzero.

Ir At one point inside the solenoid,at a

distancer fromthe centreof thetoroidalcoil,
themagnitude of themagnetic lieldis:

H =Sl tA/mt
2tcr
I
In this case, too, we can observethat the
magnitudeof the magneticfield is a function 'l t
of the productN x I.

I 10 SorprmTrainingCeilre E. Gando$i
 Prirrciples of electrotechnics

1.2.6. Magnetomotiveforce

The productN x I can be definedas the magnetomotive forceF and can be considered
intuitivelyas the causeof the magneticfieldgeneratedby the currentflow in a conductor.
Indeed, if we re-writethe above mentionedformulae,for H we have the following
formulae.

Magnctlcllelds of cumentcarrying conductors

Type of conductor (inducer) llagnetic field H llagnetomotlve force F

F = NxI =Hx2rr
tt= t (N=1,consideringthe rectilinear
2tcr conductoras a loop having an
infiniteradius)

Loop and Goll

H=NxI F = Nxf =Hx2r

2r

N*r
H= F = Nxf =Hxl
I

Toroldalcoll

H=NxJ F = Nxf =Hx2nr

2tct

To summarisewhatwe haveseen,it is possible

to generate
magnetic
fieldsby meansof
current-carrying
conductors
havinga suitable
shape.
Whenevera conductorsystemis usedto generatea magneticfield, it is calledan
inductor.
Withanyinductor,
themagnetomotive
forceis:
F = NxI IAI

SaWmTraining CentreE. Gandolft u

 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTR,UCTTVE
IESTING

t 1.3. MAGNETICPHOPEHTIES
OF MATERIALS

1.3.1.Ferromagnetism

Somematerials(certainmetalsand alloysin particular),

whenthey are immersedin a
I magneticfield,magnetise,wtrichmeanstheybecomemagnets.

such phenomenonis called

Since iron is the metal that is most easily magnetised,
ferromagnetism and the substancesare calledferromagnetic
substances.

In thesematerialsatoms(thatcan be regardedas smallelementary magnets,sincethe

I electronscan be comparedto current-carryingloops)arrangein groupshavingthe same
orientation(calledmagnaticdomains).Each domainoccupiesabout one millionthof a
cubiccentimetre of the materialandis composedof millionsof atoms.

t The atomsorientationis such that every

domainproducesa magneticfield that
(markedwithan
has a specificorientation
arrowin the schemegivenon the right).

I In absenceof an externalmagneticfield,
however,the various domains have a
random orientation,and there is no
magneticeffectoutsidethe material.

I Underthe actionof an externalmagneticfield H, the domainsthat are orientedin the

samedirectionas H (or in the nearestdirection,whichis alsocalledeasy-magnetisation
direction)tendto growat the expenseof the adjacentdomains(preferential
growth).

lf we increaseH, at a certainpointall the domainsare aligned,and any furtherincrease

I will not produceany effect.

We thensay that we havereachedmagneticsaturation.

I Morc detalle Aomic magneticfleld

An electrontravellingin orbitsaroundthe nucleuscan be seenas an infinitesimalloop carryingelectric

current (obseruethat the cunent flotls in the oppositedirectionwith respectto the electronrotation
becausethe electronis negatMelycharged).

I An alom with severalelectronscan be regardedas a set of current-carrying

to a gnallmagnet,the atomitselfcanbe seenas a smallmagnet.
equivalent
turns,and sinceeachturn is

I Sotptrrr,TrainingCedre E. Gandoffi
 Principles electrotechnics

1.3.2.Magneticinduction

The phenomenonof magneticinductionarises in ferromagneticmaterialsthat are

immersedin a magneticfield.

These materialsare magnetized(wfrichmeansthey turn into magnets)becauseof the

arrangement of the elementary magnetsproducedby the externalmagneticfield.Inside
the materialwe havean overallmagneticfieldwhichis the resultof the contributionof the
externalfieldH and of the fieldgeneratedby the magnetisation
of the pieceitself.

This overallfieldcan be expressed

by a valuecalledmagneticinductionB, givenby the
expression:
B lrxH

wherep is a specificquantity,differentfor everysubstance, Detaileddescription

calledmagneticpermeability. of B and po

Magneticpermeabilityexpresses,for certain materials,the relationshipbetween the

external magneticfield and the producedinduction.Intuitively,we can say that it
expressesthe higheror lowercapabilityof a materialto be magnetised.

We can observethat evenin the absenceof any material(i.e.in a vacuumor in air), if we

applya magnetiofield to a regionof space,a certaininductionwill be producedin that
region,calledvacuummagneticinduction Bo:

Bo1roxH

The quantity.pt"
is then denominated
vacuummagneticpermeability
and is very small
(1.2566x 10-"henry/m).

In actualpractice,insteadof referringto the magneticpermeability p (absolute)we tendto

referto the permeability
relativeto vacuum,that is to the F / F" ratio,indicatedby g".

In the case of ferromagnetic materialsp, has very highvalues(in the presenceof these
materialsthe field is substantially
reinforced).
Besides,the valueof pnrelativeto a certain
ferromagneticmaterialis not constant,but changeswith the intensityof the applied
magneticfield.

In the caseof non-ferromagneticmaterials14takesa constantvaluethat can be slightly

higher(paramagnetic materials)or lower(diamagnetic materials)than one unit. fhesb
materialsunderthe actionof an externalmagnetic generate
field, a veryweakfield:
r paldrrlagnetic materialsgeneratea magneticfieldthat has the samedirectionas the
one it was originatedby (andthereforetheyslightlyreinforcethe externalfield);
. diamdgneticmaterialsgeneratea field havingoppositedirectionwith respectto the
by (andtherefore
one it wasoriginated theyslightlyreducethe externalfield).

E. Gandolfi
SaryrnTrainingCentre l3
NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Table of rugnetisatlon valuce of commonly used fenomegnetlc materlale

Magnetlc llagnetising field H [A/cm]snd relativepermcability14

inductlon
lwm'J Soft lron and eteel Standardplate* Gast ircn

B H tl'r H th H Pr
0.10 o.7 I 140 0.45 1775 2.0 400
0.20 0.9 1780 0.5 3200 4.5 3s5
0.30 1.0 2400 0.6 4000 8.0 300
0.40 1.2 2660 0.7 4570 13.0 246
0.50 1.4 2860 0.9 ,1450 20.0 2W
0.60 1.7 2820 1.3 3690 28.0 171
0.70 2.2 2500 1.7 3290 40.0 140
0.80 2.7 2370 2.9 2780 55.0 117
0.90 3.2 2250 3.3 2180 80.0 90
1.00 4.0 2000 4.7 1700 110.0 73
1.20 6.2 1S50 8.0 1200 200.0 48
1.40 12.0 930 13.5 830
1.60 35.0 365 31.0 413
1.80 100.0 1M 90.0 160
2.00 250.0 64 300.0 53

HelativemagnetlcpermeabllltytL of
$ome paramagnetlcmateriale

Material Fr
Air 1.000000392
Aluminium 1.00002
Manganese 1.00380
Gaseous orygen 1.00131i1
Plalinum 1.00360

RelatlvemegneticpermeabilityFnof
Eomediamagnetlcmateriale

Material F,f
Alcohol 0.999992
Water 0.e99991
Silver 0.999980
Bismuth 0.999Sr0
Cooner 0.999990

CewreE. Gailolfi
SairymTraining
 Principle s of electrotechnics

t TherelationshipbetweenB andH canbe expressed by meansof a graph,denominated

normalmagnetisationcurue,whichrepresents thebehaviour
of a certainmaterialwhenit
fieldforthefirsttime.
in a magnetic
is immersed
The abscissais the magnitudeof the
t magneticfieldH and the ordinateis the
value correspondingto the magnetic
induction
B.

In the case of paramagneticand

diamagnetic materialsthe graphis a line
I (i.e. p, is constantand B is therefore
proportional to H).

In the case of ferromagneticmaterials

the relationshipbetweenB and H is not
I proportional(F" varies with H) and the
curue takes the characteristicpattern
Fenomagneticmatedals
Paramagneticmatedals
shownon the right. Diamagneticmatedals

1.3.3. Magnetichysteresisloop
I lf we examine the normal Magneticinduction+B Second
bendzone
magnetisationcurve of a ferro- conespondingto the
magneticmaterial,we will see that appliedfield
B growsslowly(first-bendzone)in Suaight-linezone
the beginning,and then grows
I faster and faster (straight-line
zone). First bendzme

After a certain point the growth } I " E

^f
decreases considerably(second- 4I
bend zone) to stop at the point of Magnitudeof the
I magneticsaturation(H = Hu). appliedmagneticfield

Let us nowsupposethatH is reduced. We cans6ethatB decreases, but moreslowly,

and doesnot returnto the previousvalues(thatis its pathdoesnot coincidewiththe
normalmagnetisationcurue).
I When H reaches the zero point, in the
materialwe will still have a
ferromagnetic
certain induction B, called residual
magnetism.

I lf we invertand increasethefieldH, we will

find a certainvalue lt that nullifiesthe
inductionin the material(demagnetisation).
Thisvalueis calledcoerciveforce.

I SarWruTrainingCcntreE, Gandolfi 15
 NDT * MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DE.$TRUCTTVEIESIING

With a furtherincreasein H, the magnetic

saturationpointis reachedagain,but B and
H now have oppositedirections.From this
point, if we take H to zero and increaseits
I value after invertingit, we go back to the
I saturationpoint.

The closed curve thus obtained is called

magnetichysteresisloopand is characteristic
of eachferromagneticmaterial.

I In generalwe can say that the areaencircled

by a hysteresisloop is proportionalto the
energy dissipated to magnetise and
demagnetise the bodythe looprefersto.
In the followingyou can find two examplesof typicalmagnetichysteresiscuruesthat
I behavedifferently:

"''T
I4 E B
1 +t
f
a) Soft iron; I o
t5

I
the hysteresisloop shows a high
residualmagnetism(8,,u)but a low
coercivefield (H..");this meansthat
6
4
I
a weak inversefield is enoughto
cause the material to lose its
2
"ql
magnetisation; H
"{
-6
-8
.10
t0
-12
-14
4 0crstad
.16 .12 € 4
b) carbonsteel; E

th6 hysteresisloopshowsa low c,

t
residualmagnetism(8.,u)but a ct

high coercivefield (H".r); this

means that a strong inverse
field must be applied to
eliminatethe magnetisation of
the material.
-8
,10
.20 .tE -12 1 I 1 2 1 6 m

# fr4runetisation
magnitude and nnalVSs
of themagnetic
hysteresis
loop
#.

SaryruTraining Ceilre E. futtdolfi

 Principle s of electrotechnics

I 1.3.4.Magneticflur

Let us now defineanotherquantitythatcan be helpfulin magnetic-particle

testing.

Whereverwe have a magneticfield we can calculateat each point the value of the
I materialimmersedin thatfield.Besidesthe linesof forceof
inductionB in a ferromagnetic
the fieldH, we can alsodrawthe inductionlines,and the procedureis analogousto that
seenfor the magneticfield.

Let us nowconsidera sur{aceA perpendicular

to the induction lines,The productB x A is

I a newquantity,calledmagneticflux,andindicatedby the letterO:

g = BxA twbl

The magneticflux is constantalong a hypotheticaltube enclosedin a lateralsurface

parallelto the inductionlines.lf we considertwo differentcross-sections
in the sametube
I we havethe relationship:
O = B r x A ,= B r x A ,

Note This propertycan be understoodthroughan analogywith the field of hydraulicssince it is

very similarto what happensto a fluid insidea g*pelinethat has a variablecross section.
I Hereis the analogY:
magnetic
flnx fluidflowrate
induction fluidvelocity
fl$(-tubecrosssection pipelinecrosssection

t As we increase(or decrease)the crosssectionlhe flowratedoes not changebecausethe

velocitydecreases(or increases).

As a consequence, if a piecehas
I a non-uniform cross section,the
flux flows from the biggercross
sectionthroughthe smallerone
(or distributes
fromthe smallerto
the bigger) and modifies the
inductionlines.
I
In reality, whenever we have
sudden variationsin the cross
section,the flux does not totally
flow in the tube:thereis a certain
I leakagein air that shall be kept
into accountin the application of
magnetisation techniques. Oa' =Os' =Q.'

I SaipenLTraining CentreE. Gandolfi l7

 NDT * MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Let us nowassumea uniformmagneticfield (similarto the one producedbetweenthe two

unlikepolesof two magnets).lf a ferromagneticpieceis immersedin this field,it will be
magnetisedand acquirea certaininductionB = [h x H. Since pn is quite high for a
ferromagnetic the fieldinsidethe pieceis higherthanoutside.
material,

I The insertionof the piecedistortsthe

field and producesa concentration of
the inductionlines insidethe piece
and, a$ a consequence of the flux
constancy,the linesare fartherapart
outsidethe piece.We can say that
I wherethe lines are closesttogether
the magneticfield is strongestand
#*---*****--
Fenomagneticpiece
::j:ii|r.;.;.:,:::::,:,:;:::j:i::::::i::::::::::::::::

vice versa.

Intuitively,and not rigorously,we can

say that lines of force and induction
I lines concentrate wherever the
material is more permeableand,
conversely, arrange farther apart
where it is less permeable.This Paramagneticpiee
meansthat movingfrom the north

I poletowardsthe southpole,linesof
force and inductionlinesflow along
the path that consumesthe least
,,,,,,,,,,i
ii;ili:i;ij:liiiiiiiiiiiiiil:.i,i,i
i
::::::::::iiir:li:::::liliriii::lilrlililitjlil;j:

amountof energy.

Paramagnetic and diamagnetic

I materials(;rnclose to one unit) can
causeonlynegligible fielddistortions.
Diamagneticpiee.

I r8 SarptmTrainingCenlreE Gandolfi
 Principles of electrotechnic
s

1.4. ELECTRICCURRENT

In thissectionyou willfindbasicinformation
on electriccurrents,
for thosewhomightneed
of the
it, in order to allow a better understanding meaning of certain statementsor
operationaldecisionsmentionedin the moduleon testingoperations.

1.4.1.Introduction

When a certain number of electric

charges(electronsor protons)startsto
move orderly,in a certaindirection,an
electric current is produced and
maintainedas longas the chargeskeep
moving. The current is therefore
defined a$ an orderlyflow of electric
charges.

The orderly movementof electronsin

an electric circuit is caused by the
electricfield that is generatedwhenthe
circuit is closed.When the circuitis
open (field at eero) electronsmove
about in a randommannerat a very
high velocity (=106 m/s in copper).
When the circuitis closed,a drifting
motiontowardsthe field positivepole
addsto the randommotion(thevelocity
of this flow is about 1010timessmaller
than that of the randommotion).ln the
driftingmotionall of the electronsflow
in the same direction and produce
electriccurrent.

The currentintensity I is the quantityof electricchargethat flows,in a giventime,

througha surfacelocatedalongthe chargespath.

Noxe
f=
At

No 4 numherof electronsflowingthrougha sudacein a timeAt

e = electricchargeof oneelectron(1.602x 10-1e
C)
At = timeinterval

The unitof quantityusedto measureelectricchargesis the Coulomb(1 C = 6.242x 1Ors

electrons).The unit of quantityusedto measurethe currentintensityis the Ampere(A).
The currentproducedby a 1 Coulombchargeandflowingthrougha certainsurfacein one
secondhas 1 A of intensity.

Sarryn TrainingCenlreE, Gandolft 19

 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLB NON.DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

I The currentis definedby its intensityand by its

direction,too, that can be positiveor negative. directionof the current
The currentpositivedirectionis generatedby the
flow of the positivechargesthat produceit.
t lf the current-generatingchargesare negative
(like in the case of electronsin a conducting
wire), we assume as a conventionalpositive
directionof the currentthe directionoppositeto
that of the flowingcharges.
t Thereare differentkindsof current,depending
withthe passage of time. In
on theirchangesin intensityand direction
magnetic-particle
examinationthreedifferenttypesof electric
currentcan be used:
. direct
I .
.
alternating
rectified

1.4.2.Directcurrent

t The direct current remainsconstantwith

time, both in terms of intensityand of
likethe currentgenerated
direction, by cells,
accumulators powersupply
or direct-current
units.

I The directcurrentis definedby the valueof

its intensityand by its direction(thecurrent
flows throughthe positiveterminalof the
powersupplyintothe circuit).

I 1.4.3.Alternatingcurrsnt

The alternatingcurrent has a periodic

sinusoidalflow (which means that it has
equalvaluesat equaltimeinteruals),
and its
evolutionwith time can be representedon
I an amplitude/time
curve.
graph by a sinusoidal

In a wire carrying alternating current

electronsregularlychangewith time their

I directionof motion.

generator
Alternating-current

I Sarper4TrainingCcntreE. Gandolfi
 P rinciples of electrotechnics

I currentis definedbythefollowing
Thealternating quantities:
characteristic
. cYcleT
I (A)
It is the constanttime intervalT = tr - b

t that goes from the instant ts where the

currenthas a given value (h) to the next
instanttr whereit acquiresthatvalueagain
after passing only once through all the
intermediate positiveandnegativevalues.
Unit:second(s)
I . frequencyf
The numberof cyclesthat the sinusoidalcuruecompletesin one second.lt is related
to the cycleby the followingrelationship:
r=l
I Unit:Hertz(Hz)
T

instantaneous
valueI, I (A)
The valuereachedby the currentat a given

t instant t.

maximumvalueor amplitude I'n*

This is the highestinstantaneous valueof
the currentin its variations.lt corresponds
to the highestpointon the sinusoidal curue.
I peakvalueIo
This is the differencebetweenthe highestand the lowestpeakvaluesof the currentin
its variations.The peakvalueis twiceas highas the maximumvalue:
Io =2I."*
I effectivevalueI"6
This is the value of directcurrentthat is neededto producethe same effectsin the
samecircuit(e.9.to dissipate the samequantityof heat).lts relationwiththe maximum
andthe peakvaluesis:

I I.n = 0'707I,no = 0'3536IF

averagevaluein one cycleI and in one half-cyclet'ro

It is the heightof a rectanglewhosebasecoincideswitha (half-)cycleand whosearea
is equalto the areaboundedby the sinusoidal curueand the abscissaaxis (t) in one
I (half-)cycle.The areasunderthe timeaxisare calculatedas negativevalues.
In alternating currentthe averagevalueis zeroin one cycle(f =0), whilein one half-
valuethroughthe relationship:
cycleit is relatedto the effective
f,,, = 0.637I.n

I Sorryn TrainingCcntreE. Gandolfi 2l

 NDT - MAGIYETIC PARTICLE NON-DESTRUCTTVETESTING

1.4.4. Rectifiedcurrent

Thiscurrentis obtainedby usingspecial Tlme - Intenefty diagram

circuits,calledrectifiers,and consistsof
an alternating current where the
I negativehalf-wavehas been cancelled
out or reversed.

In the first case we say that the current

is rectified by one half-wave;in the
secondcasewe say that the currenthas
I beenrec'tified by a full wave.

The rectifiedcurrentis the mostusedin

magnetic-particleexaminationbecause,
a$ we will see, it combines the
advantagesof the directcurrentwith the
I advantagesof the altematingcurrent.

andrectifier
OioO"s circuits
ff,

1.4.5.Measuringinstruments

Classicalammetersare composedof a device(transducer) whichconveftsthe quantityto

I be measuredinto the oscillationsof an indicatoron a calibratedscale, dividedinto
multiples of the measurement
or submultiples unitsof the involvedquantity.

Digitalammeterare basedon a totallydifferentprinciple:the measurementis readby the

instrument
throughthe voltagedrop causedby an unknowncurrentflowingthrougha
knownresistance.Theydisplaythe measurement directly,expressedin numbers.

Glassicalammeter Digitalammeter

SorryrnTraining
CeilreE. Gandolfi
 Principle s of electrotechnics

I meter
Moving-coil
Theyare composed of a rectangular turnswherethe
coil,havingN thin copper-wire
currentto be flows,
measured keptin placeby twocountersprings.

I Uniformradial
The coil is suspendedbetween the
poles of a Permanentmagnetand is
r woundarounda ferromagneticcylinder
I that has the functionof makingthe
magnetic field between the Poles
uniform.

I In absence of the quantity to be

measured,the coil is kept in the 0
positionby the actionof the springs.

When the currentI to be measured

llows through the coil, a force F is
I produced (called Lorentz force) that
makes the coil rotate until the force
itself is counterbalanced
by the action
of the springs.

I The movementof the pointeris proportional

the relationship
to the currentbeingmeasured,as shownby
betweencurrentand rotationangle:
I =Kxcr
where
rr K = drflffi€terconstant(it dependson the characteristics
of the instrument)
t d = Goilrotationangle

Sincethe pointercan moveonlyin onedirection, is usedto measuredirect

thisinstrument
currentsonly.
SatpemTrainingCentreE. Gandolfi
I
 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON-DESTRUCTWETESTING

I More details Lorcnts forcs

The Lorentzforce acts on the sides of the coil that are perpendicular
to the flu. lt is definedby the
followingexpression:
F=BxIxLxN
I Where:
B = inductionof the permanentmagnet
I = cuffentflowingthrougheachturn of the coil
L = len$h of the coil sidepependicularto the flu lines
N = fiuffiberof turnsin the coil

t Directionof
Lorentztor" .-i

t
Fixed-coilmeter

They are composed of a fixed coil that

circumscribesa cylindricalzone and of two
ferromagnetic fins: one fin is fixed on the coil
whilethe otheris free to moveand is connected
to a pivotthat rotatesdragginga pointer.

t The currentflow throughthe coil generatesa

fieldthatmagnetisesthe finswithlikepolarities.

As a consequencea repulsionlorce between

the fins is created,and this makesthe moving
fin rotateuntil its deflectionis counterbalanced
I by the actionof the springs.

In this case,the relationshipbetweenthe current

to be measuredand the deflectionangleof the
pointeris quadratic, not linear:
Iz =f xcr
I where f is a constantvalue that dependson
the instrument (e.9. permeability of ferro-
magnetic elements, elastic coefficientof the
springs...).

I As a consequence wecanobserve of thisinstrument

thatthefunctioning doesnotdepend
on any preferential
directionof the current,wfrichmeansit can be usedwithalternating
current,too;sincethe deflectionangleis proportional
to the squareof the current,these
instrumentsgivetheeffectivevalueofthecurrent beingmeasured..
SaWmTrainingCentreE Gandolfr
 UNITS
1,5. STANDARD
Systemof units(Sl Units)wasadoptedby ISO(lnternational
The International Standard
in 1971.
Organisation)

INTERNATIONAL ELECTHOMAGNETIC CONVEHSION

FACTORS
ELECTROMAGNETIC SYSTEM UNITS
OUANTITIES
Baseunit Symb. Baseunit svmb.
aDP€re-turns = 4O"
Magneticfield H meter
A/m oersted Oe 1A,/m 1Qs= JEPT'
4r

forceF
Magnetomotive ampere A gilbed Gb tn =3eu t G b= 9 A
10 4n
1T= lWb/ma= l0aGs
inductionB
Mlagnetic tesla T gaus.E Gs
1Gs=lotvb/m2=lot
Fluxof magnetic weber Wb maxwell Mx lWb= 108Mx lMx=lotvb
I inductionO

1(Wh/A)/m=1
Henrylrog Gs/Oe
4n
MagneticpermeabilityP (wb/A/m gauss/oerSedGs/Oe
lGs/oe = 364rulRyl,
107

FUNDAMENTAL UNITS Baseunit Symb. DERIVED UNITS Unit Symb.

Length meter m Frequency heilz Hz
Mass kilogram kg Force newton N
Timeinterual second s Prossurelstres$ pascal Pa
Electriccurrentintensity amp6rc A Energy;work;quantityof heat joule J
f hermodynamic temperature kelvin K Power watt W
LuminousintenslU candle cd Quantityof electricity coulomb c
funountof substance mole mol Electricvoltage;electdcpotential volt V
Capacitance farad F
Electricresidance ohm o
UNITS
SUPPLEMENTARY Baseunit $ymb. Sonductance flemens s
Planeangle radian rad nductance henry H
Solidangle steradian sr -uminousflLD( lumen lm
lluminance lux lx

PHEFIXESOFTHESI UNITS
Multiples Prefix Symb. Submultiples Prefix Svmb.
10e gtga G 1o't deci d
106 mega M 10+ centi c
100 kilo k 10-' milli m
102 hecto h 10€ mlcK) tl
10t deka da 104 nano n
10-'- pico p

E. Gandolfi
Centre
SatpemTraining 25
Module2

MAGNETICPARTICLEEXAMINATION
 Magnetic particle examination

2.1. PIECEEXAMINATION

This stage is very importantbecausethrough a good knowledgeof the piece the

procedures
operatorswillbe ableto selectthe mostsuitableexamination and equipment.

In the following,besidesillustratingthe criteriafor the examinationof the piece to be

tested,we willdescribethe principlesof magnetic particleexamination.

2.1.1.Examinationprinciple

I Non-destructivetesting using magnetic

particlesis basedon the fact that when a Leakageflrx
Examination
medium
test piece is magnetizedits surface and \ (magnetic
near surface discontinuitiescause the particles)
dispersion of a certain magnetic flux
of thisflux is
t (leakageflux).The magnitude
used to visualizethe in the
discontinuities
form of visible indicationsby means of
specificexaminationmedia.

I This methodallowsthose discontinuities that are too close to each other, or even in
t contactand thereforevery difficultto detectwith the nakedeye,to be visualizedthrough
an accumulationof the examination medium(magnetic particles).

Whena bar magnetis brokenup intotumpads,a dispersedmagneticfield with its S and N pole
t is createdbetweenlhem. Suchfield existsalso whenthe brokenends of the bar are in close
contact.
A similarsituationis generatedwhenthe bar magnetis not completelybrokenapart.The S and
N polesare createdat the edgesof the fissurein the sameway as they wouldbe in the caseof
a completefracture.

I
Dispersed magnetb field batween tha endsof a broken bar Dispersedfield generatedby a dbcontinuity

I magnet; tha close ends simulataa discontinuity in a bar magnet

principle.
Themethodis basedonthefollowing

t Let us supposethatthe magnetized test pieceis composed of a seriesof elementary

t magnets, alignedsothattheiroppositeadjacentpoles canceleachotherout.Wherethere
thepolesdo notcanceleachotheroutanymoreanda certainnumberof
is a discontinuity
lines of force are created:these are the $ourceof the leakageflux causingthe
examination medium at thatpoint.
to accumulate

E. Gandolfi
SorwwTrainingCentre
I
 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON-DESTRUCTIVETESTING

I
Fromthe 'smallmagnets'modelwe
can see that to obtain an effective
magnetic field, the discontinuitY
I must be as perPendicularas
IE possibleto the inductionlines, in
orderto createa suddenvariationin
magneticpermeabilitY.

lyingon a planeparallelto the

Discontinuities
induction lines do not generate any
I accumulation medium.
of the examination

Effectivediscontinuitydetectioncan in any
case be obtainedwith angles between40"
and 60" in relationto the inductionlines,
dependingon the type and severityof the
I discontinuity.
A - optimum orientation (the discontinuitycan be
detected)
B - not very favorable odentation(the discontinuity
canstillbedetected)

I C - unfavorableorientation(the discontinuitycannot
be detected)
.-+ directionof the discontinuity
+ directionof the magneticfield

The methodof examination by magneticparticleshas its ownadvantages

and limitations,
by thefollowingtable.
as illustrated

t ADVANTAGES
The procedurecanbe leamedeasilY
LIMITATIONS
It can be used with ferromagnetic
Operations,except visual inspection, materialsonly to detect sudace and
canbeentirelvautomatic nearsurfacedefects.
It can ensurea hiqhlevelof sensitivity The piece dimensionsand geometry
It can be used also with lightlycoated can limit the applicationof certain
pieces testingtechniques
The interpretation of the indicationsis Demagnetization can cause problems
relativelvsimple when very low values of residual
It is characterizedby goodaccessibility magnetism are requircd.

Examplesof ferromagneticand
Magnetic particle Bxaminationcan be non-ferromaoneticmaterials
successfullycarried out on pieces with Non-ferromaqnetic Ferromaonetic
particularlycomplicatedgeometry,where Aluminium Steel
the applicationof X-ray or ultrasonic Silver Cobalt
methodswould be troublesome. lt can Magnesium lron
I also be very useful in the detectionof
fatiguedefects,since these start at the
Manganese
Platinum
Castiron
Fe-SiAlloys
surface and propagate towards the Copper Nickel
insideof the piece. Brass
Titanium

SaiperuTrainingCentreE. Gaildofi
 M agnetic paft icle exarnination

t Optimuminductionlevel

To obtaina goodaccumulation of magneticparticlesan optimuminductionlevelmustbe

reachedin the piece beingtested.This is achievedby makingsurethe inductionlevellies
t within a specificrange on the normalmagnetization curue,and more preciselyon the
section of the curve characterizedby high magneticpermeability,so that there is
maximumdifference(p - p") betweenthe permeability of the test piece(p) and that of the
air (p.),

In the graph given on the right this

I regioncorrespondsto the sectionB-C
on the curve, that is to saY the zone
Magnetic
inductionB
wlrere the orientationof all magnetic
domains is nearest to that of the Optlmum
magneticfieldH. induction
level
t lf the work point were to reach
saturation, ff, excessive number of
i.+
{:i
|+.i

f;'t
particleswouldadhereto the surfaceand i;;il
consequentlythe contrast would be ivl
frt
/-..4
worsened. i4.ii
i:?:.-
i.+
t lf, on the otherhand,the workpointwere
would
to lie in sectionA-8, the indication MagnelicfieldH
be too slight,or possiblyevanescent.

I More details Graphic rcpresentationof p

At eachpoint P of the normalmagnetization curye,the value

of magneticpermeabilityis givenby the ratio:

p=B/H

On the otherhand,B/H is givenbY:

g/H = tgF

where tgp is the tangent of angle p = eOO. From the

relationshipbetweenp and p follows that the maximum
valuesof p correspondto the maximumvaluesof p, that is
to the points P on the curue where the inclinationof the
segmentOP is maximum.

Note The term "contrast"indicatesthe differencebetweenthe colorof the particlesand the colorof
the piece being tested. The smaller the differencebetween the two colors (contrast
unrsening),the lessvisiblethe indications.

E. Gandolfi
Centre
SarryntTraining 31
 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

2.1.2.Griteriafor the pieceexamination

Magneticparticleexaminations usuallystartwith a thoroughinspectionof the pieceto be

tested, in order to obtain the informationneededto select the most suitabletesting
techniqueandequipment:
. Sfafusof the piece - new: in this case a generalinspectionshouldbe carriedout in
order to detect metallurgical discontinuities
or defects
relatedto the piecemanufacturing process
- used:in thiscasefatigue-related
defectsshouldbe searchedfor
(if the statusof the pieceis unknown,
a generalinspection
shallbe
carriedout in anycase).
. Geometry The followingcharacteristics
shallbe evaluated:
- dimensions
- overallsize
- variationsin the piece diameteror cross section(whichcan
generateindefiniteindications)

, Processing (welding,turning,...)becausethey can generatefalse indications

and affectthe selectionof thetestingequipment
andtechnique.

T Part of this informationis usualfysuppliedwith the piece (for example,the various

treatmentsthe piece has undergone). lf no informationis supplied,the operatormust
thereforetry to makehis owndeductionsby examining the piece.

Suchexamination to be formulated
will also allowhypotheses regardingboththe nature
and orientationof the discontinuities.
I The pieceusuallycomeswitha seruicing requestwhichis analyzedin orderto:
. checkfor the existenceof any controlproceduresto be followedwhencarryingout the
test;
. checkfor anyspecificregulationsto be applied,

lf thereare no specificrequests,the operatorissuesthe test resultswithoutmakingany

statement on acceptabilityof the piece.In thiscasethe operatormustalso decideon the
levelof testingto establishhow importantandthereforecriticalthat pieceis, tryingto work
out, if not specified,whatthe pieceis usedfor.

32 SaiperuTrainingCentreE. Gandnlfi
 M agnetic p ar-ticle examination

The areaexaminedin one shotis similarto

the one shownon the right.

Therefore,if the sudaceto be examinedis

wide,an adequategrid shouldbe drawnso
as to coverthe entiresudace.

lf the directionof the defect is unknown,each zone must be examined with two
successivetestsrotatingthe prodsat 90'.

The intensityof the currentto be usedand the distancebetweenthe two prodsdependon

the thicknessof the piece underexamination. The correctvaluesare set out in various
referencestandards (seeexcerptshereafter).

t Prodspacingd
(mm)
ASTME109-76
of thecurrent
Intensity
Thickness< 20 mm ThicknessE 20 mm
5 1< d E 1 0 2 200 - 300 A 300 - 400 A
102<d<152 300 - 400 A 400 - 600 A
400 - 600 A 600 - 800 A
I 152<dE203

ASTMV (T 769.3- $ummer1980)

of thecurrent
Intensity
Prodspacingd (every25 mm of distancebetweenthe prods)
(mm)
t 80EdS200
Thickness< 20 mm
9 0 - 1 1 0A
ThicknessE 20 mm
100- 12s A

uNl 7062-7?
of thecurrent
Intensity
d
Prodspacing (every25 mm of distancebetweenthe prods)
I (mm)
100sd<150
Thickness< 20 mm
300 - 400 A
Thickness> 20 mm
400 - 600 A
150<d<200 400 - 600 A 600 - 800 A
200<d 1000- 1200A 1200- 1800A

I
Note This techniqueis lessand lessusedbecauseof the tollowingrelatedproblems:
r riskof cracks
r riskof fire

that guaranteethe sameperformance

In their place,electromagnets are nowavailable.

SarrymTrainingCerureE. Gandnlfi 37
 NDT * MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

t ff the piece to be examineddoes not meet the requiredUd ratio (>2), and if the
magnetization has to be longitudinal(for instancewhen searchingfor transversefatigue
cracks)the lengthof the test piececan be increasedby joiningit to anotherpiece o{
similarsizein orderto obtainthe requiredlength.

t lf the pieceto be examinedis longerthan460 mm the coil shouldbe put in the centerof
the sectionbeingmagnetized in orderto ensurea uniformfieldthroughout the sectionto
be examined.

The coil diametershouldbe similarto the test piecediameter(this is becauseof the

causedby the air betweenthe testpieceand the coil).
variationin magneticpermeability
t
Through-cable technique

In the caseof ring-shapedpieces,magnetization

can be obtainedby meansof a cablewrapped
I so as to form a series of turns. The
magnetizationobtained is circular with the
induction lines flowing along the piece and
closingaroundit.

As the inductionvalue is higher aroundthe

I cable and lower on the oppositeside, the
magnetizationprocessshould be repeatedon
2 or 3 sectionsto avoid any differencein the
examination sensitivitY.

is givenby:
The numberof ampere-turns
Nxf =Kxd
where
d = minimumdiameterof the piece,in cm
K = Bmpiricalfactorthat rangesbetween300 and 400,dependingon the expected
and on the permeability
sensitivity of the materialbeingexamined.

2.2.6. Magnetizingcurrents

Whenusingthe currentflow methodor the magneticfieldmethod,varioustypesof current

can be used:
. directcurrent,
or generatorsby rectifyingalternatingcurrents;
generatedby accumulators

. current,
alternating
normallyusedat the networkfrequency;

. rectifiedcurrent,
obtainedby rectifying,throughthe use of rectifiers,one or both the half wavesof the
networkalternatingcurrent.
SaipemTrainingCerhreE. Gandolrt
 Magnetic particle emmination

I Directcurrent
+Leakage fllo(+
The main characteristic of directcurrent
is that (unlike
alternatingcurrents,as we
will see) it distributesitself uniformly
I through the cross section of the test
piece while also providingadequate
magnetization in depth;thisallowsnear-
sudacediscontinuities to be detected.
Surface Nearsurface
discontinuity discontinuity

I However,the attractiongeneratedby this currentdoestendto makethe particlesstickto

theirmobility.
the testpiecesurface,thusreducing

Directcurrentis not used very often and is generallyonly used with fixed eeuipment
inspectionunits).
(stationarymagnetic-particle
I Alternatingcurrent

This type of current remains in the +Leakageflux

vicinitvof the sudacebecauseof the
Ir eddyturrentsthat are generatedin the
magnetized piece,and becauseof thisit
is virtuallyimpossibleto detect near'
surfacedefects.

I Eddycurrents
Sudace
discontinuity
Nearsurface
discontinuity

The magneticparticlesaredrawnby the pulsating attractionproduced by the alternating

currentandarelessinclinedto stickto thesurface:
thisfacilitates
theirmovement towards
Inthisrespect,
thediscontinuity. alternating gives
current betterresultsthandirectcurrent.

More details Di*trlbutlon of currents and magnetlcflelds

The graphsrepresentthe distributionof the currentI andd the magneticfield H alonga diameter(AB)of
the piececrosssection.

Directcurrent Alternatingcunent

A O
The extensionin depth of the magneticfield is
due to the uniform(constant)distributionof the
direct currentthat flows throughthe piece cross
section.
The absenceof the field in depth is due to the
surfacedistributionof the alternatingcurrentthat
flowsthroughthe crosssection.

E, Gardnlfi
SarwmTiainingCentre 4l
 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON-DESTRUCTIVETESTING

I Rectifiedcurrent

The mostcommonlyusedtype of currentin + Leakageflu +

the current-flow method is half-wave
rectifiedcurrent.Apart from being easy to
I obtain,it possessesall the advantagesof
direct current (unidirectionalflow and
subsequenthigher penetrationdepth) as
well as those of alternatingcurrent,as it
makesthe particlesvibrate,thusfacilitating
Surface Nearsurface
theirmovement.
t Currantvalues
discontinuity discontinuity

The various types of current used in magneticparticleexaminationsare defined by

severalquantities.With the exceptionof directcurrent,characterizedonly by its intensity
I value,bothalternatingand rectifiedcurrentscan be definedby parameters,such
different
as the maximumvalue,the averagevalue(in one cycleon in a half cycle)or the effective
value.

$imilarly,differentmeasuringinstruments can be used: moving-coilmeters,fixed-coil

meter$,electronicmeters.The followingtableshowsthe valueto be measuredand the
I instrumentto be usedfor eachtypeof current.

RECOMMENDED RECOMMENDED
TYPEOF CURRENT PARAMETERS INSTRUMENT
DC andthree-phase or Hlectronic
or
polyphaserectifiedAC valueI
Average moving-coil
meter
I Single-phaseAC
Half-waverectified
EffectivevalueI Electronic
or fixed-coilmeter
Electronicor
averagevaluefro
Half-cycle
single-phaseAC moving-coil meter
Full-waverectified Electronic
or fixed-coilmeter
AC Averagevalue I
single-phase
I Singlepulse
PeakvalueIo
Timet for a 50%drop
Oscillograph

DC = DirectCurrent CA = AltematingCurrent

t In workingpractice,
the ammeterpliersare
used to measurehigh-intensity
particle
currents
usedin magnetic examinations.
Theymustbe connected to the conductor
whosecurrentis beingmeasured.
I Thevalueof the currentcanbe readon the
instrument
display.
Digitalammeterplierc

I TrainingCentreE, Gandulfr
Soiptrrr,
I
the examinershallalso select
technique,
Afterdefiningthe mostsuitablemagnetization
the adequateequipment,which includesboth the magnetization instrumentsand the
examination equipment
medium.The examination and the types
various of particlesare
I in thefollowing.
illustrated

2.3.1.Magneticparticles

The field leakagethat emergesfrom the discontinuityis detectedby means of finely

t divided magneticparticlesthat tend to accumulateon the discontinuitycavity thus
displayingthe relativeindication.

The magneticparticlesconsistof linelygroundmagnetite(ironoxideFegO+),

with varying
degreesof coarseness(differentsizes).

I Thereare two maintypesof particle:

. dry examinationmedium:the particlesare appliedto the sudace of the test piece

usinga specialair blower;

r wgt examinationmedium:the particlesare dispersedin a liquidthat worksas a vehicle.

I
medium
Dryexamination
Dry magnetic particles have
coarsergrainsthanwetmagnetic
particlesbecausetheYmust be
heavy enough not to be
dispersed as
in the environment
well as to avoidadhesionto the
piecesurface.

Undertheactionof theair blower

they must 'jump'on the Piece
sudace,heldonlyby the leakage
f ieldgenerated
bydiscontinuities.

oncoarsesurfaces.
Drypowdersaremosteffective

'Cof,rs€'pailicles(between50 and300 pm):

r they do notdispersein the environment

r they do not stickto the piecesufface
r the| are heldby the leakagefieldonly

SarrymTrainingCcmreE. Gandolfi 43
 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTWE TESTING

I Wetexaminationmedium

Wet magneticparticlesare of
finer grain,so that they can
I remainsuspendedin liquids
and be more sensitive to
smalldefects.

Magneticpowdersmustbe of
type, so as
the water-soluble
I to guaranteehomogeneous
suspension.

I 'Fine'pailicles(between10 and20 pm):

. they remainsuspendedin a liquid

r the! ensurea highersensilivityto srnalldefccts

I Theliquid:

r rTlustspreadover the sudace(insteadof remaininglocalizedin droplets)and rapidly

conveythe particlesall overthe piecesudace;
. mustflow and drip awayfromthe test piecesurfaceas soonas possible;
I r it mustnot constitute
rTlustnot be corrosiveor oxidizing; a riskto humanhealthor to
the environment.

The currenttendencyis to use moreand morewaterwith wettingagents(sudace-active

agents)and corrosioninhibitors.

ffi *oHNrNe
When usingwater-baseexaminationmediait is advisableto take a few preventive
mea$uresto protectthe equipment
fromshoncircuits.

SaiperuTrainingCentreE" Gandolfr
 Magnetic particle examination

I Examinationmediumwith contrastpaint

Todayexaminerscan rely on a specialcompoundof wet particlesparticularlysuitablefor

sudaces.lt is composedof whitespraypaintto
the examinationof verticalor inaccossible
be sprayedon the sudaceunderexamination and of a wet suspensionspraycontaininga
I fixed concentrationof black particleswlrosegrains are slightlycoarserthan those of
f Iuorescentparticles.

I
Spnying of the Sprayingof the
whlte nntrast palnt wetparticlesuspenslon

t
of the pafiicles
2.9.2.Characteristics
canbe of twoWpes,whether
Particles wetor dry:
. colored
Thevisibilityof the indications
dependson the differencebetweentheircolorandthe
colorof the piece beingexamined. Differentcolorsare availableto suit the piece
sudace(ochrefor burnished blackfor ground-finish
sudaces, ones,bluefor oxidized
onesetc.).Visualinspection mustalwaysbecarried outin a suitably
litenvironment.
. fluorescent
Theseareveryfinemagnetic particles
coatedwithfluorescentpigments. Theparticles
dueto thefactthatinspection
arehighlysensitive is carriedout in a darkened
room
usinga speciallampthatenhancestheirfluorescence.

More deteils Fluorescentmaterlale

Certainmaterials,calledfluorescentmaterials,can absoQshort-wavelengfih electromagnetic

radiation,
in this case of about350 nanometer$(1 nanometer=10-"meters),and then immediatelygive out the
absorbedenergyemittingvisibleluminousradiation,termedfluorescentlighl.

SorryotTraining CentreE. Gandolfi 45

 NDT * MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTTVETESTING

I the effectiveness
Manyfactorscan influence particles.
of magnetic Hereis a list of the
mostimportant
ones.

Magnaticpropertias
t To ensurea good sensitivityto leakage
fields,magneticpowdersmust have a
good magneticpermeabilityand a low
coerciveforce.

I The typical hysteresis loop of the

particlesis shownon the side.

I
Shapeand dimensrbns
I The performanceof particlesin the presenceof a leakagefield will be betterif they are
elongatedratherthanspheroidshaped.

Dry powderscan be of varyingsizesbetween50 and 300 ;rm,whilewet powdersrange

between10 and 20 Hm.Fluorescentmediaare even smaller:they rangebetween1 and
t 5 pm.

Concentrationof powdersin a liquid suspension

I Recommended
followinglimits:
for 100 cms of liquidsuspensionshouldlie withinthe
concentrations

min (cms) max(cms)

coloredpowders 1.5 2.O
powders
fluorescent 0.? 0.4

I The concentrationof the examinationmediumcan be easily checkedby means of a

graduatedtesttubecontaining 100cmsof liquid,wellshakenbeforebeingpouredintothe
tubeto ensurethe sampleis representative.

The liquidis leftto settlein the testtubeuntilthe powderhassunkto the bottom,generally

afterabout30 minutes.In the caseof veryfine powders,the settlingtime may requirea
I few hours. However,placing a magnet under the tube to attract the particlescan
acceleratethe processand reducethe settlingtime.

valuecanbe readdirectlyon the graduated

At this pointthe concentration testtube.

SaipemTraintngCcntreE. Gandolfi
 M agnetic pafticle exarnination

t Chackingthe efficienlyof powders

Special referenceblocks bearing

known defects can be used to
check the efficiencyof both dry
I and wet particles.

On the side you can see a block

with holes drilled at increasing
depths:it can be usedto checkthe
performanceof the examination
I mediumin the caseof nearsurface
defects.

Giventhe same conditions(same

defects and magnetizationcondi-
tions) dry powders are more
t sensitiveto near-sudacedefects
thanwet powders.

In on-siteexaminations, in the presenceof particulartemperature conditions(too hot or

too cold) it is alwaysrecommended to checkthe efficiencyof the examinationmedium

t using a reference
characteristics
block at room temperature.In fact, temperature affects the
of the particles.The A$MEV codestatesthe followingtemperaturelimits
for the pieceto be examinedandfor the medium.
- 315.6"C for dry powders;
- 60 "b for,liquidpowders.

I 2.3.3.Lightinglamps

In magneticparticleexaminations two typesof lightare used:white light with colored

particles.
particlesand blacklightwithfluorescent
I Visualinspection usingcoloredparticlesmust
be carriedout in a well lit environment,
while
in the case of fluorescent particles the
environment must be darkened. Leaving
aside discussionof white light (daylightor
t normallamps)we will insteadnow look at
blacklighting.

Blacklightis obtainedby filteringthe radiation

emitted by a mercury-vaporlamp. The
emission spectrum of these lamps is
t composedof severallinesbetweenultraviolet
and visible. By suitablyfilteringthe light
200 300 {00 600 300 ?00
radiation levels between visible and far (nm)
Wwelengnh
ultraviolet,only the radiationbetweenabout Fffi Transmission
factorofthefilter
300 and400 nanometers is allowedto pass. - Transmitted
radiation

I CewreE. Gandolfi
Sarryr+Training 47
 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON-DESTRUCTIVETESTING

r This type of filter is also knownas a Woodfilterand lampswith the abovecharacteristics

are also knownas Woodlights.

A Wood light is comPosedof a small Glassexternal

quartz bulb containinga few drops of bulb
I mercuryenclosedin a sPecialglass
bulb.Thereare two versions: Auxiliary
electrude
. with a transparentbulb:theseneed
an externalfilter;

I . with a bulb made of specialWood

glass:thesedo not needan external
Wood'sfilter
filter.
Quailzbulb,transparentto ultravioletrays,
gas (neonor argon)
containinglow-pressure
The power ratingsavailableare 100, andafewdropsof mercury.
125,250 and 400Watts.
I
Mercury-vapor lampstend to becomee*raustedovertime and for this reasonthey need
(a radiometer).
checkedby meansof specialinstruments
to be periodically

The ASMEV standardrecommends

I the intensityof black light lampsto
be checkedevery I hoursof use bY
meansof an instrumentcalibratedto
a sensitivityof 365 nm.

t The check consists of taking two

readings:the first one withoutUV
filters and the second with an
absorbentUV filter (365 nm) placed
over the photocellof the measuring
instrument.The differencebetween

t the two values mu$t be of at least

800 pWcm2.

The efficiencyof the lampmustbe testedafterat least15 minutesof warm-up.

I ffi *oRNrNc
In order to avoid any damageto the retina,do not look at the lamp. Always use
suitableprotectiveglasses.

I &ntre E, Gandolfr
SaipemTraining
 Magnetic pafticle examination

I In order to obtaingood readings,the lamp must be kept at a distancefrom the piece

suitablefor the intensityof the lamp itself.Excessivedistancesdo not providesufficient
lightingand this wouldpreventweaksignalsbeingdetected,or ratherthoseproducedby
deep and narrow discontinuities.Conversely,too close a distance would cause a
reductionin contrast.\A/ithstandard100Watt lampsthe correctdistanceis about40 cm.
I The examinermustcleanthefiltercarefully to preventthe accumulation
of dust.A layerof
dustwouldreducethe intensityof blacklightemittedby the lampas well as its fluorescent
etfect.

lf thereare any crackson the filter,it mustbe replaced.This is becausethe ultraviolet

I radiationcouldpassthroughthesecracksand damagethe eye.

Mors detalle Perceptlonof colots

The eye does not perceiveall colorsin the sameunay,but has a maximumsensitivityfor yellow-green
radiation(e.9.thoseemittedby fluorescentexamination
media).
I The eye perceptionof colorsis a functionof lighting,that is, as lightingis increased,the perceptionof
differencesbetweencolors increasestoo, while the capabilityto distinguishsmall light sources is
decreased(fovealvision);as lightingls decreased,the perceptionof color differencesls decreased
whilethe capabilityto distinguishsrnalllightsourcesls increased(scotopicvision).

I 2.3.4. Examinationequipment
Magneticparticleexamination
equipment
canbe dividedintotwocategories:
- fixedequipment (forexamplethe stationary inspection
magnetic-particle unit),
I this is mainlyusedin laboratory,
workshop or production
department
inspections;
- mobileequipment,
sucha$:
r gen€ff,torsfor prodexaminations
. portablemagnetsand electromagnets
I theseare generallyusedin on-siteinspections.

inspectionunit
ary m agnetic-particle
Station

I This unitcomprisesa benchtop,a mainbodythat housesthe electricalequipmentand a

pumpfor the examination medium.The mediumis sprayedon by a specialgun and
collectedin a tank underneath recycled.
to be subsequently

The mainbodyof the unitcontains:

.
I .
.
a transformer
a rectifier
andthefeedpump
the tankfor particlesuspension

I Centre
Sarptr+Tiaining E. Gando$i 49
 NDT . MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

I On the benchtop thereare:

. two headsto clampthe test pieceand supplythe magnetizing current(for the
current-flowmethod);
. d rndgtletizing coil(forthe magnetic
anddemagnetizing fieldmethod).
I The benchis alsoequippedwith:

. a blacklightprojector
. a feederfor particlesuspension
. a deviceto adjustand controlthe magnetization
conditions.
I

t
llagnetization control device

I The two heads, one fixed and the other mobile,serve the purposeof pneumatically
clampingthe pieceunderexamination, supporting
the electrodesfor the currentflow and,
if the pieceis goingto be magnetized
withan electromagnet,retainingthe poleextensions
thatcreatethe longitudinal magnetic
field.
I The examination mediumcirculationsystemis a crucialelementbecausethe examination
sensitivity,and moregenerallyits reliability,dependgreatlyon the rightconcentration
of
particlesin the liquidvehicle.Duringtest operationsthe liquidmediummustnot become
contaminatedby waste, surfaceoxide powders,or oils comingfrom the piece being
examined.
I
S. ron*tormer

I SaipemTraining
CcntreE. Gannnlfi
 M agneticparticle examination

I Generatorfor prod examinations

The simplestmodelis composedof a voltagetransformer-reducer with a currentintensity

adjustmentdeviceand an ammeterthatmeasures the deliveredcurrent.The currentflow
can reachas muchas 2,000amperesin alternatingcurrent,a sufficient
valuefor localized
I prodmagnetization
to be obtained.

In morepowerfulmodelsthe generatoris mountedon wheelsand the transformer can

deliverup to 5,000amperes,in bothalternating
and half-waverectifiedcurrent.

I
generatorforprod
Wheel-mounted Poftablegenentor for prod examinations
magnetization
I The prods comprisetwo copper(or copperalloy)electrodeswith blunt tips in order to
achievea widerelectricalcontactsurfaceand to avoidany burningcausedby too high a
currentdensity.

I The buttoncontrolfor the magnetizing currentpulseis presenton the generatoras well as

on one of the prods.The latteris necessaryto allowthe examinerto inseftor interruptthe
currentwhilethe electrodesare positionedon the piecebeingtested,thus avoidingany
sparkingor localfusion.

t
ffi wARNTNG
coatingof thewiresis in goodconditions.
Alwaysmakesurethe insulating

I Satpem Tiaining Csilre E. Gandolfi 5t

 NDT * MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Portable
magnetsand electromagnets
A portablemagnetis composedof a systemof one or morejointedsections,eachof
thesebeinga permanent magnet,and of two elementsof highmagnetic permeability
positioned thepolesof themagnet.
at theendswhichconstitute
When the magnet is placed on the
surface of the test piece the magnetic
fieldcloseswithinit producinga localized
longitudinal
magnetization.

I- This can be used successfullyinsteadof

prodsthusavoidingany riskof burning.lt
can also be used in examinationsof
paint-coatedsudaces (providedthat the
paintIayeris not too thick).

I Thefluxproduced by a permanentmagnetis neverthelesslimitedandwhena largepiece

needsto be inspectedtheinduction
obtained
is insufficient.
In such cases electromagnets must be
used. These are composedof soft-iron
jointed sectionsexcited by a winding
I poweredby directcurrent.The core is of
the finnedtype to reduceloss causedby
eddycurrents.

Electromagnetsare more powerfulthan

magnet$ but are also less practical
I becausethey requirean electricalpower
supply.

I In order to 6nsurereliabletestingmethods,and thereforeto guaranteeproper

discontinuity
detection,
theefficiency
of theequipment periodically.
mustbeverified
In particular:
1. theefficiency
of themagnetizing
equipment(power supplies,
coils,electromagnetsand
magnets, measuring
instruments
etc.)shouldallbechecked annually or periodically
by
eitherthemanufacturer
or a companyauthorized to issuecertification;
2. the powerof magnets andelectromagnets
canbe checked
on the spotby testingtheir
abilityto liftweights.

Saipem Training CentreE. Gandolfi

 Magnetic pafticle examination

I 2.4, PROCEDUFE
EXAMINATION OF THETESTRESULTS
ANDEVALUATION

Thissectiondealswiththe examination procedure andillustrates

the singlesteps,also
givingpracticaladviceandsuggestions. A specialcarehas beenpaidto the sectionon
which
of the results,
the evaluation the maintypologies
illustrates of discontinuities
that
I canbe detected by magneticparticleexaminations.

2.4.1.Practicalrulesfor magnetization
Whichevermagnetization the intensity
systemis selected, of the magneticfieldmustbe
I adjustedaccordingto the geometrical
A few rules shouldbe followedbased on
of the pieceunderexamination.
characteristics
practicalexperience and which are also
recommended bythemainreference standards.
In the followingyou will find somepracticalhintsbasedon the directions
givenin
sectionV of theASMEstandard. Theserulesrepresent
themostmeaningfulandpractical
I aspectsdealt
theditferent
withso far,pointswhich
stagesof examination
areworthgoing
usingmagnetic
over again
particles.
progressing
before onto

Prodmagnetizationtechnique

I The prodspacingmustbe between80 and200 mm:shorterdistances

(concentric
falseindications of particles
accumulations
wouldgenerate
aroundtheprods)thatcouldmask
relevant while
indications, greater
distances
do notguarantee
a satisfactory
sensitivity.
Thickness Current
The currentis adjusted,takingintoconsideration
the (mm) (A/mm)
I test piece thickness,accordingto the approximate >20 4+5
t valuesgivenon the right. =20 3.6 + 4.4

The equipment mustbe ableto ensurea no-loadvoltageno greaterthan25 V to avoidthe

formationof arcs at the contactpointswhichcouldcausethe sudaceto be contaminated
by the coppertipsof the prods.The useof aluminum sucha risk.
or steelcapseliminates
t
Coil magnetizationtechnique
can be carriedout usingeitherspecificequipmentor by simply
Thistypeof magnetization
windinga voltagecable around the test piece.The maximummagnetization lengthis
I 460 mm;piecesthatare longerthan460mm requirea section-by-section magnetization.

The magnetization intensityis determinedby the numberof

ampere-turns (NxI) establishedon the basisof the test piece ud NxI
L (length)to d (diameter)
ratio. 35m0
>4
I The ampere-turnsrecommended by the ASMEstandardare 2+Ud
I givenon the right. 4s000
2<4
Ud
When the Ud ratio is smallerthan 2, the coil longitudinal
magnetizationtechnique loses its efficacy, and other
methodsshallbe used.

I E. Gatdolfi
SairymTrainingCnntre 53
 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

I Currentflow magnetizationtechnique
This term is used to indicatea globalcurrentinputand is normally
carriedout using
equipment.
stationary

The intensityof the magnetizingcurrentdependson

the externaldiameterof the test piece,as indicated Diameter
d Cunent
(mm) (A/mm)
in thetableon the right.
The currentis expressedin ampereper millimeter of < 125 28+36
diameter A'lmm, that correspondsto the current 125<d<250 2 O+ 2 8
density. 250<d<380 12+20

I In the case of non-circularcross sections,the

diametercoincideswith the dimensionof the major
> 380 4+13

diagonal.

technique
CentraI conductormagnetization
I This can be carriedout usingeithera stiffbar or a bentflexiblecablepassedseveral
timesthroughthe testpiece(thisallowsthe intensity of the magnetizing
currentto be
reduced).
lf the conductor at the piececenter,the magnetization
is notpositioned willbe higherin
the piece
sectionnearerto theconductor.ln this repeated
case, magnetieationsequences
willbe necessaryto completetheexamination.
The intensity of the magnetizingcurrent is
established on the basisof the externaldiameterd Diameter
d Current
(mm) (A/mm)
of the test piece and the numberN of passages
I throughthe pieceitself.
The currentis expressedin ampereper millimeter
< 125
125<ds250
(28+36)/N
(20+28)/N
(12+20)/N
of the conductordiameter.In the case of non- 250<d<380
circularcro$s sections,the diametercoincides > 380 (4+13)/N
withthe dimension of the majordiagonal.

t Yokem agnet ization technique

or permanent
Thistechniqueuseseitherelectromagnets magnetsand is appliedto detect
surtacediscontin
uities.

t The magnetizingaction of these devicesdependson the distancebetweenthe poles

whichcan vary becausethey are normallyjointed.

TheASMEstandardstatesthe suitability of
magnetsfor magnetization on the basisof
I their ability to attract in relationto the Attractioncapacity(kg)
I distancebetweenthe polesrequiredby the Altematingcurent electromagnet 4.5
examination. Directcurrentelectromagnet
The tableon the side showsthe minimum 18
acceptedvaluesfor attractioncapacityas Permanentmagnet
bytheASMEstandard.
specified
I SatpemTrainingCenlreE Gandolfi
 Magnetic pafticle examination

I 2.4.2.Gheckingthe magnetizingfield

To makesure that the requiredmagneticfield valueshave been reachedin area of the

pieceto be examined,the standards,as well as good practicerules,suggestthe use of
specificindicatorsto checkthe magneticfieldon the test piecesurface.
I The mostcommononesare:
. the ASMEFieldIndicator
. Berthold'sprobe
. referenceblocks
I . gaUSS meter

ASMEFieldlndicator
Trlanglesectionsiolnted
This probeconsistsof an octagon
I made up of eight steel triangle
sections brazed together using
copperalloy.

One surface of the octagon is

also coveredby a 0.25 mm layer
I of copperalloy.

The probeis placedon the piece 3mm

to be examinedwith the brazed
surfaceupwards.
t_
Copperplate t-
I (thickns€s:
0.2S

By magnetizingthe piece and

spreadingthe magneticparticles
on the probe,indicationsshould
I appear on certain sides of the
triangles.

The appearanceof more or less

clear indicationsconfirms the
required sensitivity has been
I reachedas well as the direction
field.
of the magnetizing

t Sarryrrt,Training CenlreE. Gandolft 55

 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTWE TESTING

I Berthold'sprobe

Thisconsistsof a brassplatefixed
on a paramagneticcap threaded
on a base made uP of four steel
t pieceswhich are brazedtogether
in a crossformation.

The probe is apPliedin the

sameway as the previousone.

I The importantfeature of this

probe is that by screwing or
unscrewingthe cap we can
simulateindicationsat different
depthsand obtainan indexof
the sensitivity for a given
I magneticfield.

Referenceblocks
I materialin whichdefectshave been artificially
These are blocksmadeof ferromagnetic
created.
Obliquedefects
When immersed in the
Tranwersedefects
magneticfield generatedfor
I the examinationand sPraYed
with magneticparticlesthey
give qualitative information
Longitudinal
defects

of the field
aboutthe efficiency
and the suitability of the
selectedtechnique.
I For example, the reference
block at the side here shows
the approximate depth of
transverse,longitudinaland --.il*Qholes=1mm
inclineddefects.

Reference blocks are also

used for testingand periodic
checkingof the examination All mcasureaare in millimders.
media.

I SaipenTraining CentreE. Gandofi

 Magnetic particle examination

I Gaussmeter

This consistsof a pointerwhich movesalong a scale

calibrated in gauss following the direction of the
magneticfield.Zero is at the centerof the scaleand
I thereare 20 unitson eachside.

When placedin the vicinityof the pieceit indicatesthe

polarityand magnitudeof the magneticfield epressed
in gauss.

I Note The probes and the referenceblocks describedabwe prwlde qualltativeinformationon the
intensityof the magneticfield generatedin the zonesto be examined.Otherinstruments(e.9.Hall's
probe)supplyquantitativeevaluations of the magnetlcfield.

I 2.4.3. $equenceof operations

The mainstepsof magneticparticleexaminations

are:
1. sudacepreparation
I 2. checking for residualfields
3. magnetization andspraying(continuous
method)
4. visualinspection
5. demagnetization

t 6. protectivetreatmentwherenecessary

Surtacepreparation
The test piecemustbe cleanand free of all grease,becausethis wouldnegativelyaffect
the mobilityof the medium.
I Surfacepreparationmethodsinclude:
- the use of a clothdampedwithnaphthaor solvent(to removeany greaseor oil)
- the use of a wire brush(to removeoxidesand loosescale)
- sanding(to removeadheringoxides)
I - grinding(to smoothexcessively roughsnrfaces,suchas weldedparts)

O Practical
suggestions
1. lf youareusingdrypowders, thesurfacemustbeperfectlydry.
I 2. lf youareusingclothesto cleanthepiece,makesuretheydo notleavethreadson the
sur{ace.
g. Oxidescalesare magnetic and can intederewith the examination:
they mustbe
removed.

I Saipem Training CentreE. Gandol,fi 57

 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON-DESTRUCTTVETESTING

I Checkingfor residualfields

The aim of this stepis to checkfor the presenceof any residualmagneticfields(of various
origins)on the piece to be examined,in order to determinethe exact polaritiesand
intensityof the magnetization.Thischeckis carriedout usinga gaussmeter.
I
Magnetiat ion and spraying (continuous method)
procedure.
This is the mostimportantstepof the examination

I . Magnetization
mustbe as perpendicular
The directionof magnetization as possibleto the directionof the
expecteddefects. lf the directionis unknown,it will be necessaryto carry out more
examinations with magnetizationdirectionsperpendicular
to eachother.

t Test piecemagnetization
involves:
- selectingthe type of magnetization
longitudinalor circular,dependingon the epected orientation
of the discontinuities
beingsearchedfor;
I - selectingthe type of current
alternatingor half-waverectifiedcurrent,dependingon the expectedlocation(surface
beingsearched
or nearsur{ace)of the discontinuities for;
- selecting method
the magnetization
I the selectiondependson the pertormance
offeredby the availableequipment.

. Spraying
This operationmust be completedbeforemagnetization
is completedin order to avoid
I coveringthe indications.

fi eractical
suggestions

I 1 . lf you are usingdry panicles,do not applytoo muchpowder,but sprayit littleby little:
you shouldbe ableto see the formationof the indication.Any excesscan be removed
by gentlytappingor blowingwhilethe magnetizing fieldis stillactive.

lf you are using wet particles,do not forget to shake the containerto avoid the
sedimentationof particles.
I particles,applythe whitepaintbeforemagnetizingthe
lf you are usingcontrast-paint
pieceand wait until it driesup. Then magnetizeand applya uniformlayerof black
spray powder. The applicationof too much powder would negativelyaffect the
contrast.

t SarpemTraining E. Gandolfi
Centre
 Magnetic particle emmination

t Visualinspection(continuousmethod)

Visualinspectionof the test piecemustbe carriedout immediately,

whilethe indications
are forming,
so thatthe applied fieldcan be accordingly.
adjusted

t lf any indicationsare detectedapplicationof the field must be interruptedto determine

theirimportanceand nature(falseindicationsor defects).Oneof the endsof the indication
is then removed(for examplewith a file) and the surfacecleaned.Magnetizationand
sprayingare then repeated:
- if the indicationremainson the surface(eithermore or less evidentafter the above
I -
operations) thereis a discontinuity;

if it disappearsit was probablya falseindication.

This can be confirmedby repeatingthe operationon anotherportionof the indication.

I Special attentionmust be paid when examiningpieces processedby machinetools

(lathes, milling machinesetc.) since these can give false indicationscaused by
irregularitiesin the tool wear; the resultingmarkscan in some cases (on threadsfor
example),produceindications similarto thosegivenby fatiguedefects.In this case,the
indicationmustbe treatedas describedabove.

I lf the standardsdo not give any preciseindicationsaboutthe defects(e.9. transverse

defectson the bodyor threadof the drillingpipemeanthatthe piecemustbe rejected)the
followingprocedurecan be adopted.

Directionof the stress

When examining pieces of
I significant size (such as
clamps,waterswivels,hooks),
if indicationsarise in zones
not subjectedto work stress
and where direction of the
defectis parallelto the stress
t of the piece, the importance
and depthof such indications
must be checked to allow
them to be monitoredduring
successivetests.

I lf the test pieceis thickenoughthiscan be carriedout by drillinga holeat one end of the
indication usinga flat drillbit (to improvevisibility
of the indication).

Centre
SarymTraining E.Gandoffi 59
t
 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON-DESTRUCTIVETESTING

r afterbeing
A firstholeis drilledat a depthof 112mmandthe bottomis thenobserved
magnetized andsprayedwithparticles:
. if the indicationdisappears,
it wa$ a surface
this
dis-
ffi
mean$ ffi

I continuityand anY Propagation

has beenstopped.In this casea
secondholeis thendrilledat the
W
sfiEs$ffiEMFt+f;g$ffiSffi

Theindication ... a secondholeisthen

disappears... drilledat the otherend
otherend.

. if the indicationremainsthe hole ffiffi

I is drilled deeper and the
operationis repeateda certain #tfftEilrsffifiHfrwfffitgs
ffiffiffiffiffi
numberof times dependingon
The indicationpersists ... the holeis drilled
the test piecethickness: deeper
- persists
if theindication thepieceis rejected;
I - if it doesnotpersist,thesizeandtheorientation mustbe recorded
of theindication
on theexamination reportandthepieceis accepted.
anyvariations
examinations
Duringsuccessive canbemonitored,

I withresidualmethod
sprayingand visualinspection
Magnetization,
The residualmethodfollowsthe sameprocedure, the
onlydifferencebeingthat magnetization,sprayingand
are carriedout in seguence. Residualmethod
visualinspection
I In addition,beforesprayingwith particles,
the residual
1, magnetlzzation
2. epraying
magnetic field of the pieceshouldbe checked in order 3. vieuallnrpection
to makesure it is adequateto ensuredefectdetection.
The residualfield can be checkedusinga gaussmeter.

t Demagnetization

Typically, the test piece is demagnetizedby

carrying out a series of hysteresis loops to

I progressivelyreducethe appliedmagnetic

Demagnetization
field.

is carriedout when requiredby

the examination specificationsand wheneverit is
knownthat,followingthe indications detected,the
piece will be machine-workedor welded, since
t magnetismcan affectsuchprocesses.
Demagnetization is also necessarywhen different
types of magnetizationare applied in sequence
(e.9.circularand longitudinal)when passingfrom Durdase in the hystaresislaopsduring
one type to the other. the piacademagnetization

Cerfire
SaiperuTraining E Gandoffi
 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTIVE TE.STING

t Forginglaps
Definition
that can be detectedin laminate,forgedand draft parts.They are
Discontinuities
causedby localized protuberancesor craterson the surfaceof the piece being
I examined.
Location
They reachthe piecesurfaceand are inclinedor perpendicular
with respectto the
surface.
Machine-ulorking
I direction

Magnetizationtechniques

T
Yoketechnique
t
Lackof sidewallfusion

I Defrnition
Thesediscontinuities can be detectedin cast or weldedpiecesand are causedby
the adherence of the liquidmetalto a sudacethatis not hotenough.
In the caseof weldedparts,lacksof fusionare parallelto the weldaxis.
Location

t Magnetization techniques
Theycan be detectedby meansof:
- prodmagnetization (A,C)
- yokemagnetization (A,C)
- coil magnetization,
that can be applied
when examiningpipe circumferential
welds, to detect longitudinalcracks
only(B).

T CenlreE. Gandolfr
SaiWmTraining
 NDT * MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON-DE.STRUCTTVE
TESTING

I Lackof penetration
Definition
This defectcan occurin weldsis due to a bad preparationor the edges(excessive
shoulders,inadequate distance),or to an grooving
incomplete of the weld reverse
t side,whenbothsidesarewelded.
In the latter case, the best momentfor the detectionof lack of penetrationsis
immediately afterthe grooving,beforethe restart.
Location

t
Magnetizationtechniques
Theycan be detectedby meansof:
t - prodsoryokes;
- central conductors, when
examininglongitudinalpipe
welds;
I - coils,when examining
pipe
I welds.
circumferential

Undercuts

I Definition
Theycan be foundin weldsand are the consequence of bad operatingconditions.
alongthe interfacebetweenthe weld surfaceand the parent
They are longitudinal,
metal.
Location
I
Mag netization techniques

I Theycan be detectedby meansof:

- prodsor yokes;
- centralconductors,
whenexamining pipewelds;
longitudinal
- coils,whenexamining
pipecircumferential
welds

I SorptrnTraining CentreE, GandolJi

 Magnetic particle examination

I Slaginclus,bns
Ilefinition
aretypicalof weldsandarethe consequence
Thesediscontinuity of badoperative
procedures.
I Location
They are generallyelongated,locatedon the sideof the weldmetalzone.

I Magnetizationtechnlques
Theycan be detectedby meansof:
- prodsoryokes;
- centralconductors,
whenexamining
I pipewelds;
longitudinal
- coils,when examiningpipe circum-
ferentialwelds.

t Fatiguecraks
Detlnltion
These defectscan be detectedin piecesthat are subjectedto repeatedloadsor
vibrationsand are causedby relevantgeometrical
changesor surfacenotches.
I Locstion
In case of shafts or pins, subjectedto
torsion,fatiguecracksare locatedon the
piecesurface,at about45" with respect
to the pieceaxis.
I In the case of weldedparts,cracksare
usually located on the side of fillet
welds.

Magnetlzationtechniques

t Theycan be detectedby meansof:

- prodsoryokes;
- centralconductor
(hollowshafts);
- coil;

I - currentflow.

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 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON-DESTRUCTTVETESTING

I Stress-conosion
cracks
Definition
These defects occur in pieces that are
employedin conditions of highhumidityor
I in the presenceof liquidsand subiectedto
externalstress,or stresscomingfromthe
workingprocess.
They have a characteristic netlike
pattern,moreor lessaggregated.

I Magnetizationtechniques
The thorough detectionof these cracks
requirestwo perpendicularmagnetizations
of the piece by meansof prodsor yokes. Netlikepaftemof
strdss+orrosbn cmcks

I
Differentmagnetization techniques andtheirapplicability
in relationto the typeof discontinuity

I Prods Yoke Gentral

conductor
Cable
u/rap Coil
Current
flow

?T #T W ffi @F
Laminations x x
Forqinqlaps x x
I Lackof sidewallfusion
Grindinocracks
x x
x
x
x x
Coldcracks x x x
Hotcracks x x x
Lamellartearinq x x
I Gasinclusions
Lackof oenetration
x
x x x x
Undercuts x x x x
Slaqinclusions x x x
Fatiquecraks x x x x x
I Stress-corrosion
cracks x x

I CeilreE. Gandolfi
Sarryrr+Training
Acceptancecriteria Criteria used to determinewlrethera discontinuitycan be
acceptedor not.Thesecriteriacan be statedin the normative
issuedby international(ASME,ASTM, BS, ...) or national
(UNl) organizationsand associationsor in the test
specificationssupplied by the customer or by the
manufacturer.
ASME AmericanSocietyof Mechanical
Engineers
ASTM AmericanStandardof TestingMaterials

Black light Invisibleelectromagnetic radiation,also known as Wood's

light, near the ultravioletrange;its wavelengthlies between
330 and390nm.

Brazing A methodof weldingwhereonlythe weldmetalis melted,and

not the parentmetal(generally, low-melting-point
metalsand
alloys,suchas tin or tin-leadalloys,are used).

Gircularmagnetization Magnetization
techniquecharacterized
by circumferentiar
frux
linesthatflow throughthe pieceand closearoundit alonga
directionthat is usuallyperpendicularto the piece cross
section.

Goerciveforce Value of the magneticfield that bringsthe inductionin a

magnetized fieldbackto zero.
Coil magnetization A methodof magnetizingin whichthe piece (or part of it) is
immersedin a magneticfield. lt includesthe use of coils,
magnets,electromagnets, central conductors,through-coil
technique.

Continuousmethod A methodwhereinthe indicating mediumis appliedwhilethe

magnetizing
forceis present.lt useshighervaluesin the piece
field.
magnetic

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 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTTVETESTING

Gorrosioninhibitors Substancesusedto preventor reducecorrosionphenomena

in metals.
They affect the electrochemicalprocess of corrosion by
stoppingthe relatedchemicalreactions.They can be either
organicor inorganic
compounds.

Currentflow method A methodof magnetizing in whichthe circulationof a current

througha piece is used to generate a magneticfield. lt
includesthe prodtechniqueor the use of electrodesplacedat
the pieceends.

Defect thatcannotbe accepted.

A discontinuity
t It usuallyleadsto the rejectionof the testedpiece.

Demagnetization Removalof the residualmagneticfieldfrom a pieceafterit has

undergonea magnetic-particle
examination.
It is not alwaysnecessary.

Discontinuity Variationin the piecephysicalcontinuity,

It can be causedby differentfactorsand can appearin various
shapes,dependingon the cause.All discontinuities must be
evaluatedin orderto statewhethertheyare defectsor not.

t Eddycurrent Electriccurrent inducedwithin a magnetizedpiece by an

alternatingcurrentand opposingto it, so that the currentflows
onlyon the surfacelayerof the piece.
Dueto the formationof eddycurrents,the alternatingcurrent
for the detectionof nearsurfacediscontinuities.
is unsuitable

Electromagnet Magnetizing lt is composedof an iron core around

instrument.
which conductingwires are wound in coils. As the current
flowsthroughthe coilthe ironcoreis temporarily turnedintoa
magnet.lt is usedto produce magnetization.
longitudinal

I Electromagnetic
radiation
Emissionof energyin the formof wavesor photons(or, in the
substances,
caseof radioactive in the formof particles).

SaipenTraining C*ntre E Gandolfi

 Glossary

Electromagnetism Fieldof physicsdealingwith the interactionsbetweenelectric

andmagneticphenomena.

Emissionspectrum The graphicrepresentation of the intensityof radiationas a

functionof the wavelength.

Examinationmedium Seemagneticparticles

Falseindications Indicationsthat are not generatedby discontinuitiesor

geometriccharacteristicsof the piece but by other factors
(excessivemagnetization,
localvariationsin hardness...).
Ferromagnetic This term refers to materialsthat can be magnetizedor
attractedby magneticfields.
Thesematerials are characterizedby a muchhighermagnetic
permeabilitywith respectto non-ferromagnetic
materials.
Flashpoint Temperatureat which the vapors from a combustible
willignitein air in the presenceof a flame.
substance

Fluorescence The propertyof certainmaterialsto absorbshort wavelength

electromagneticradiationand to emitthe absorbedenergyin
theformof visiblelight,calledfluorescent
light.

lndication Accumulationof particles during a magnetic particle

examination.lt can be due to discontinuities or to other
factors.
lnduction A phenomenon in whichmagneticfields alter the magnetic
of otherbodiesplacedin theirvicinity.
conditions

Leakagefield Distortionsin the magneticflux lines generated by the

presenceof discontinuities
(due to the changein magnetic
permeability)or by sudden variationsin the piece cross
section.

SaiperuTrainingCentreE, Gandolfi 75
 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTWE TESTING

Localized
circular Localizedmagnetizationcharacterized
by circularflux lines
magnetizatlon thatcloseonthepiecesurface.
Obtainedby meansof prods.

t Longitudinal
magnetization
Magnetization techniquecharacterizedby linesof forcethat
enterandleaveth6 peacewithoutclosinginsideit. The lines
areparallelto thepiecelateralsudaces
andgenerally coincide
withthelargestdimension of thepiece.
lf the use of magnetsor electromagnets involvesonly one
portion of the piece, we have localized longitudinal
magnetization.

Magnet A material that has the natural or artificial capability to

generatea magneticfield.

Magneticdomains Groupsof atomsin a ferromagnetic material,orientedin the

samedirection.
In thesematerials,atoms(that can be consideredas small
elementarymagnets,the electrons being comparableto
turns)arrangein groups havingthe same
current-carrying
calledmagnetic
orientation, domains.

Magnetic
field A regionof spaceaffectedby the actionand the effectsof a
I magnetor of a current-carryingconductor.Magneticfieldscan
be definedby lines of force that start at the poles and close
aroundthem.

Magneticflux The magnetic fluxO througha surfaceA, perpendicular

to the
B is definedas the productB x A.
linesof induction
Giventhe samearea,wherethe flux is strongerthe induction
linesare closertogetherandviceversa.

Magnetichysteresis A characteristic curvethatdescribesthe trendof inductionB in

I loop a materialas the magnetic fieldH thatgenerates the induction
itselfis varied.The areaboundedby the curuerepresentsthe
energyconsumed to magnetizeand demagnetize the involved
material. The hysteresisloop gives information on two
importantparameters:
. residudlmagnetism
r force
CoBlCiVe

SaipeWTraining(xntre E. Gandolfi
Magneticinduction A physicalquantity,indicatedby the letterB, wlrichallowsto
determine the valueof the magneticfield in a material,
keepingintoaccountthe magnetization phenomena thatthe
fielditselfgensrates
in it.
It is expressedbytherelationship
g=pxH
wherep is themagnetic
permeability
and H themagnitude
of themagnetic
field.
Magneticpafiicles Finely divided particles of ferromagnetic materials
(magnetite= iron oxide Fesoa) capableof being individually
magnetizedand attractedto the distortionsof a magneticfield
(leakagefield).

Magneticpermeability Characteristicparameterexpressedby the ratio betweenthe

magneticinductionproducedin a certain materialand the
magneticfieldthathasgenerated suchinduction.
In non-ferromagneticmaterialsit can reach values close to
one, whilein ferromagnetic materialsit is muchgreaterthan
one. Also,in this case it variesas the magnetizingfield is
varied.

Magneticsaturation The conditionin whichthe magnetizationof a ferromagnetic

material,all the domainsbeingalignedwith the magnetizing
field,cannotbe furtherincreased.

Magnetism Phenomenaand laws that describewhat happens in the

presenceof magnets.

Near-surface A discontinuity
thatis notlocated
onthesurface.
discontinuity To detect near-surfacediscontinuities
the examination
mustbeextremely
technique accurate.
Non-relgvant Indications
that are causedby particular
conditions
of the
indications piecebeingtested(geometry, cro$s*section
variations,
...)
ratherthanbydiscontinuities.

Permanent
magnet A magnetthat retainsits magnetizing
properties
virtually
fora longperiodof time.
unchanged
SaiperuTrainingCeilre E. Gandnlfi
 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTTVETESTING

Electronic usedto transform

circuits an alternating
currentinto
a rectifiedor directcurrent,by eliminating
the negativehalf
wave$.

Referenceblock A blockof ferromagnetic materialwith knowndefectslocated

at differentdepthsand havingvariousorientations, usedfor
the evaluationof the efficiencyof magneticparticlesas well as
to testthe magnetizing field.

Residualmagnetism The magneticinduction that remainsin a magnetized

material
fieldhas beenremoved.
afterthe magnetizing

I Reeidual
technique A methodwhereinmagneticparticlesare applied after the
piece has been magnetized.lt uses the piece residual
magnetism.

Retentivity The propertyof a materialthat definesthe levelof its residual

magnetism.The higherthe materialretentivity,the higherthe
residualmagnetismafter the magnetization of the material
itself.

$ensitivity The degree of the capability of a magnetic-particle

examinationtechniqueto indicatesurface or near surface
discontinuitiesin ferromagnetic
materials.The higherthe test
sensitivity,
the smallerthe detectable
discontinuities.
Sensitivityis affectedby severalfactors,sueh as the piece
magneticconditions andthe examination
mediumusedfor the
test.

locatedon the surfaceof the piece.

Surfacediscontinuity A discontinuity
Surface-active
agent Substance addedin smallquantities
to liquidsto increasetheir
wettingaction.

Suspension Dispersionin a liquidof a finely dividedsolid.The solid and

the liquidformtwo distinct phases(thatmay be separatedby
centrifugationor filtration).

SaipenTrainingCentreE. Gandolfi
I

I Transformer Stationary
electrical poweredby alternating
equipment current
that transferselectricenergyfrom one electriccircuitto
another, (voltage
varyingitscharacteristics andcurrent).

t
UNI ltaliana(ltalianStandardInstitute)
UnioneNormativa

t
Viscosity Characteristic of liquidsthat refersto the frictionbetweenthe
molecules of the liquiditselfwhichpreventsit fromflowing.In
I practice,the term viscositydefinesthe capabilityof a fluid to
flowon a sudace.
The highertheviscosity, the slowerthe flow.

I
Wettingaction The ability of a liquid to spread over a sudace insteadof
maintaining a sphericalshape.
t lf we considera dropof liquidon a solidsurface,andthe angle
betweenthe surfaceof the liquidand the sudaceat the point
of contact:
. \flhenthe angleis less than90" we say that the sudaceis
wettedby the liguid;
t . when it is greaterthan or equal to 90" we say that the
sudaceof the solidis notwettedby the liquid.

Whitelight Also knownas visiblelight, white light correspondsto the

luminousenergy that has a wavelengthbetween400 and

I 700 nm.

I Saipem Training CentreE. Gandoffi 79

 Appendix-More theory

1.1. THE VECTOR"H"

A quantitywhosedefinitionrequiresthe knowledge of its magnitude

and of the directionis
termeda vector.A magneticfield is thereforea vectorquantity.Conversely,quantitiesthat
are definedthroughthe knowledge of onesinglevalueare calledscalarquantities.

Forexample,massandweightare scalarquantities.

On the contrary,the displacementof an object is a

vector quantity.Let us imaginea objectthat moves
from A to B. To fully describethe objectdisplacement
two indicationsmustbe given:
- the distanceit has covered
(magnitude of the displacement)
- the directionof the displacement
- the directionof its motion

Alsospeedandforcesthat act on an objectare vectorquantities.

Vector quantities can be graphically

representedby directedline segmentswith
an arrow that indicatesthe direction.The magnitude
point at the first end of the line segmentis
called tail (or point of application)of the
vector,whilethe end with the arrowis called ,'
tip. In the case of a magneticfield we will t,ir1-,4^qin
havea representation similarto the onegiven
on the right.

Vectorquantitiesfollowvariousrules,the most importantone beingthe 'parallelogram

rule'whichmakesit possibleto sumvectors:
- startingat the tip of eachvector,a line is drawn,parallelto
the other vector, so that a parallelogram (ABCD) is
obtained; g
- the vector sum coincideswith the diagonal of the
parallelogram, withthe tail in A and the tip at the opposite
vertexC of the parallelogram.

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 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON-DESTRUCTTVETESTING

1.2. FURTHEHDESCRIPTION
OF "8" AND"pe"

Magneticinductionis the effectof a magneticfield on a materialimmersedin the field

itself.

This effectcan be represented by a vectorcalled'magneticinductionB'. lts direction

coincidewith thoseof the fieldH that had producedit, whileits intensityis a functionof H
expressedby the relationship:
B lr xH H* Bl
Pt
wherep is the magneticpermeability
of the materialbeingconsidered.
I
The relationshipbetweenB and H is one of
proportionality in vacuum(magneticpermea- ilaterial Ratio1r/1r.
bilityin a vacuumis p.=1.2566x 10'6henry/m) diamagnetlc slightly< 1
I and for diamagnetic and paramagnetic paramagnetic slightly> 1
I materials(wherep has a constantvalueclose feromagnetic >> 1 anddependsonH
to 1t"). With ferromagneticmaterials the
relationship is not proportional
becausep is a
functionof H.

r The relationship betweenB and H can be

expressedby means of a graph, termed
normalmagnetisation curve,that expresses
the behaviourof a certainmaterialimmersed
r in a magneticfieldfor the firsttime.

Note:the lines of paramagneticand diamagnetic

materialsare in fact much less inclinedthan
the linesin this graph.

Fenomagneticmaterials
Paramagnetic
materials
Diamagnetic
matedals

SaiFruTraining CentreE Gandolfi

 Appendix- More theory

I 1.3. II/IAGNETISATIONMAGNITUDE

In a ferromagneticmaterialthe induction
B can H
be consideredas composedof Bo, which
would occur in a vacuum (regardlessof
I whetherthe materialis presentor not) at the
applicationof H, addedto the component due
*"*"t

to the pre$enceof the magneticdomains

alignedin the directionof H. H ,

I $uch contribution refers to the material

magnetisation
conditionand is representedby
a vector quantity called magnetisation
magnitude Magneticinductionin vacuum
J. aN in aferromagneticnaterial

I The magnetisationmagnitude is a functionof H

as expressedby the relationship
J - ;-loxlxH
However,this is not a linearrelationship
and
I the ratio:
M _
L-
J

tr,
"H
is termedmagneticsusceptibility.

I The normal magnetisation curve of a

ferromagnetic material can be drawn in
functionof J insteadof B.

In this case it can be observedthat from the

I saturation point on the curue becomes
horizontal,becausethere are no more non-
aligned domains, while B would have
continuedto increaseslowlywith the increase
of H, due to the contribution
of Bo.

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 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON-DESTRUCTIVETESTING

1,4. ANALYSISOF THE MAGNETIC

HYSTERESIS
LOOP

BetweenpointA and pointB, underthe actionof a

weak magneticfield H, we can observethe first
magneticeffectson the piece.The field H is still
I too weakto causethe domainsgrowth,but we can
saythatit is preparing
the ground.

Betweenpoint B and point C we can observea

quite fast growth(the curve increasessharply)of

I the domainsthatare alignedwithH (theorientation

of these domains is called 'easy magnetisation
At pointC all domainsare aligned.
direction').

BetweenC and D the field H is strong enoughto interferewith the rotationof the
electrons,so that the magneticfield producedby them is orientedexactlyin the same
I directionas H. This causesa furtherslightincreasein J until saturationis reached(D):
afterthis,any furtherincreasein H doesnot haveany effecton the material.

Unlikechangesin the rotationof electrons, the domainsgrowthis not reversible. In fact,

as H decreases,J decreasestoo, but it doesnot followthe normalmagnetisation curve.
WhenH is at zero,the materialstillshowsa certainlevelof magnetism, J., calledresidual
I magnetism(approximately equivalent to the ordinateat C).

Structureat the initialstage,non- Magnetizedstructurewithgrowthof Magneticsaturation

magnetised(pointA) magneticdomains(pointC) and (pointD)
cancellation
of the fieldH with
residualmagnetization (pointJ,)

In orderto takeJ to zero it is necessaryto J

applya field H in the oppositedirection, Jr.t
D
havinga valueH" termedcoerciveforce.
c
t As we have seen, betweenJ. and G the
magnetizationproce$sis slow (prepa-
ration)and is followedby the fast growth
{

of the domainsuntil pointQ is reached.

BetweenQ and -D the electronsrotation H
mode changes,and then the saturation
I pointis reached.

ll we subsequentlyreduceand invertH,
the materialcloses the hysteresisloop
followingthe sameprocess.
D J- )
-Jr"t

Sarryrr,,Training CentreE. Gandolft

 Appendix- More theory
I
lf at point H* we removethe field H, we will
observethat the curu6 has an upwardtrend
I until it reaches L, thus showing a slight
I prevalenceof the domainsorientedoppositeto
the cancelled field.

I
lf, instead,we proceeduntilpointP is reached,
thuscancelling out the field,the curvereaches
pointO, that is zero:at this pointthe material
I has zero magnetisationin absence of field
t (initialsituation).

t The resulting magnetic of the piece,however,

structure is not analogous
to the original
one:in fact,if we oncemoreincrease H in theoriginal
direction,thecurvewilltracethe
OT pathinsteadof thenormalmagnetisation curvepath.

I The reasonis that after undergoinga certain

magnetisation,the materialmagneticdomains,
althoughthe materialhas beendemagnetised,
are orientedparalleland not randomly.

This meansthat lessenergy(a weakerfieldH)

t will be necessary to carry out a second
magnetisation.
Demagnetised
materialafterone or
morehysteresisloops.

t SaWm TiainingCentreE. Gandolfi 87

 NDT - MAGI\ETIC PARTICLE NON.DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

1.5. ALTERNATOR

you can see an elementary

In the illustration
alternating current generator (altemator)
composedof a singleloop immersedin a
I permanent magneticfield.

Itsfunctioningis basedon Faraday's law (or

electromagnetic inductionlaw):in an electric
circuitmovingin a magneticfieldan electric
currentis produced,calledinducedcurrent.
t The importantpointis that duringthe circuit
movementin the fieldthe numberof linesof
force (and therefore the flux) flowing
throughthe circuitis changed.

We also obtainan inducedcurrentwhenwe

I keep the loop still and change the
magnitude of the magneticfield.
Currentindicator

The intensityof the inducedcurrentdepends

on howfast the numberof the linesof force
in the circuitis changed(andthereforeon
I the shapeof the circuitas well as on the
wayit movesfield).

In the alternatorshowed in the picture,

where the loop has a constant rotation
pattern.
I velocity,the currenthas a sinusoidal
Eachturn of the loopgeneratesone cyclein
the sinusoidalcurue.

The curue maximumand minimumvalues

are reachedwhenthe loopis perpendicular
I to the field; wfien the loop is horizontalthe
inducedcurrentis null.

SatpemTrainingCentreE Gandolfi
 Appendix* Itiloretheory

1.6. DIODESAND RECTIFIEH

CIRCUITS

The diodeis an electronicdevicethat allowsthe passageof

currentin only one direction:in the schemeon the right, "-DF
fromA to B. Symbolof the diode

It behaveslike a switch:when the currentflows in the right directionit is like a closed

switch,whenit flowsin the oppositedirectionis likean openswitch.This propertyis used
to makecurrentrectifierslikethoseshowedon thispage.
. half-waverectifier

"'hr^r, *l ,,, .,.=

.
,,,
full-wavercctifier

.l ""l^ff^A-
, ,,,
1,7, JOULEEFFECT

The passageof a currentthrougha conductorcausesa rise in the conductortemperature

and a subsequent heatexchange(for instance,the wiresin a homeheat applianceare
heatedandthuswarmup the environment.

This happensbecausethe electronsthe currentis composedof give part of their kinetic

energyto the conductorbodyin the formof heat.

Thisphenomenon
is termedJouleeffect,andis widelyusedin our dailylife.

Saipera Training CentreE. Gandoffi 89

 NDT - MAGNETIC PARTICLE NON-DESTRUCTIVETESTING

I 1.8. EDDYCURRENTS
A conductorpiece immersedin a
variablemagneticfield (like those
generatedby alternatingcurrents)
I develops internal currents wfrose
energyfromthe
subtracts
circulation
magneticfield that had generated
them.
Thesecurrents,also calledFoucault
I currents,after the name of the
who$tudiedthemin the last
scientist
Inducedmagneticfleld

century)arecausedby the alternating

currentand opposeto it, and as a
consequence thealternating current
is
onlyin a surfacelayer.
distributed
I
1.9. TRANSFORMER

t lt is an electrical
deviceconsisting core,of oneprimarywindingandone
of onesoft-iron
secondary winding,composed of an insulated conductingwire,woundinto a certain
number of turnsaroundtwooppositesidesofthecore.
lf we applya voltageVr to the primary
I winding,and we call the numberof
t turns in the primary and secondary Soft iron
windingNr and N2 respectively,we will core
havea voltageequalto: Secondary

v, = Nt *v, %
r ' N t
lf Na is biggerthe transformer produces
a highervoltage,if it is vice versa,the
producedvoltageis lower.

SairywTrainingCentreE. Gandolfi