PAPER ON HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

"ENDOCRINE SYSTEM"

OLEH

GROUP 5

1. GRESIA PALENTINA HUTAGAOL (4193342003)

2. FADHILLAH RAHMA PURBA (419334200)
3. THERESIA OKARINA BUTAR-BUTAR (419334200)

BIOLOGI BILINGUAL 2019

BIOLOGY EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

FACULTY OF MATH AND SCIENCE

MEDAN STATE UNIVERSITY

2021
 FOREWORD

Praise and thank God Almighty for His blessings, mercy, and gifts this
paper can be completed. Paper entitled "Endocrine System".

In the preparation of this paper, the author experienced many obstacles,

both directly and indirectly, however, thanks to the guidance and assistance of
various parties, this paper was resolved. Therefore, on this happy occasion the
author would like to thank you.

We hope that this paper can be useful for all of us. However, we are aware
that there are many shortcomings in the knowledge and abilities we have,
therefore we are looking forward to constructive criticism and suggestions. At
then end of my speech, thank you.

Medan, Mei 2021

Group 5

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD.............................. ............................................................................................. i

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................ ii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1. 1. Background................ ................................................................................................ 1

1. 2. Problem Formulation ..................................................................................................

1. 3. Purpose................... ....................................................................................................

CHAPTER II DISCUSSION

2. 1. Definition of the Endocrine System ...........................................................................

2. 2. Types of glands in the endocrine system .............................................................

2. 3. Functions of the Endocrine Glands ............................................................................

2. 4. How the Endocrine System Works .............................................................................

2. 5. Abnormalities in the Endocrine System .....................................................................

CHAPTER III CLOSING

1. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................

2. Suggestions .....................................................................................................................

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... .......................................................................................................

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 CHAPTER II

PRELIMINARY

1.1. Background
Histology is a medical science that studies human tissue. Histology
studies the microscopic structure of a network of organ systems.
Histology deals with human anatomical structures and cannot be
separated. So when studying the histology of a system, a student must
also understand the anatomy of the system. This also applies when
students study the endocrine system, to understand the histology of the
endocrine system, students must also understand the anatomy of the
endocrine system.
The endocrine system is a regulatory system that coordinates
various processes in the body by releasing chemical messengers called
hormones. Endocrine secretion into or can be referred to as internal
secretion into the extracellular space around the secretory cells. The
endocrine system has supporting components, both endocrine glands and
endocrine cells. For the transport of secreted hormones, the endocrine
system uses blood vessels.
So in learning about the histology of the endocrine system,
students learn about the microscopic structure of the endocrine system
along with its functions and characteristics.

1.2. Formulation of the problem

1. What is meant by the endocrine system?
2. What are the types of glands in the endocrine system?
3. What are the functions of the endocrine system?
4. How does the endocrine system work?
5. What are the abnormalities in the endocrine system?

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1.3. Purpose
1. 1. To find out what is meant by the endocrine system
2. 2. To find out what are the types of the endocrine system
3. 3. To find out what are the functions of the endocrine system
4. 4. To find out how the endocrine system works
5. 5. To find out what are the abnormalities in the endocrine system

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 BAB II
KAJIAN TEORI

2. 1. Definition of the Endocrine System

The endocrine system is a system that works by means of chemicals (hormones)
produced by the endocrine glands. Endocrine glands are blind glands (internal secretions)
that send their secretions directly into the blood and lymph fluid, circulating in the glandular
tissue without passing through the ducts (ducts). The surface of the glandular cells is attached
to the stenoid / capillary walls of the blood. The product of its secretion is called a hormone.
Hormones are materials produced by the body that have specific regulatory effects on the
activity of certain organs, which are secreted by the endocrine glands, and are transported by
the blood to the target tissue to determine / change the activity of the equipment / target
tissue. The endocrine system consists of endocrine glands and in collaboration with the
nervous system, has an important role in controlling the activities of the body's organs. The
endocrine glands secrete a substance called a hormone.
Hormones are chemical transmitters that are released from specific cells into the
bloodstream and then carried by responsive cells where these properties occur (according to
Starling). The specificity associated with hormonal is that hormones are organic chemicals
that have high activity even though they are only given in very small amounts. The hormone
that is produced is directly secreted into the blood vessels, and channeled directly to where it
is needed. Upon arrival at the destination organ, the hormone performs specific activities
regulating the metabolic processes of the destination organ.
The endocrine system can be described in the following diagram:

 Endocrine System Functions

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 1) Regulating organic metabolism and H2O and electrolyte balance

2) Cause changes in adaptation to help the body cope with stress

3) Regulate the development and growth of the body

4) Controlling reproduction

5) Regulate the production of red blood cells

6) Together with the autonomic nervous system, controls and integrates both
circulation and digestion and absorption of food.

 Hormone
Hormones are channels of chemicals produced by endocrine glands (blind glands) and
circulate them through blood vessels to target organs and cells. Hormones function to
regulate growth, reproduction, behavior, balance and metabolism. The amount of
hormone needed is generally small, but hormones have a large working ability and a
long lasting effect because hormones affect the work of organs and cells.

Hormones are divided into three based on their constituent components,

1. Proteins and polypeptides, mostly water soluble. Examples: Insulin,

glucagon, and FSH.
2. Amino acid derivatives, mostly water soluble. Example: thyroxine and
epinephrine.
3. Steroid derivatives and fatty acids, mostly lipid soluble. Examples:
progesterone, estradiol, and testosterone.

Based on its function, hormones are divided into:

1. Development hormone / Growth hormone - a hormone that plays a role in

development and growth. This hormone is produced by the gonad glands.
2. Metabolic hormones - the process of glucose homeostasis in the body is
regulated by various hormones, for example glucocorticoids, glucagon,
and catecholamines.

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 3. Tropic hormone - produced by a special structure in the regulation of
endocrine function, namely the pituitary gland as a follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH) in the ovaries and the process of spermatogenesis (LH).
4. Regulating hormone for water and mineral metabolism - calcitonin is
produced by the thyroid gland to regulate calcium and phosphorus
metabolism.

The mechanism of action of hormones is influenced by primary interactions

with protein receptors that recognize what hormones are needed and select
hormones and then decide what hormones act in response to stimuli. This causes
an adjustment in the membrane of other proteins, thereby activating enzymes in
the cell and producing (synthesis) second messengers that activate the enzyme
phosphorylation.

2.2 Endocrine Glands

Endocrine glands or blind glands, are glands that do not have a duct (ductless) to
excrete secretions out of the glandular body. Only certain tissues are capable of responding to
certain hormones.

The structure of the endocrine glands is composed of a very simple group of

microscopic structures. This group consists of a row of cells, plates or clumps of cells
supported by connective tissue which contains many capillaries.

Endocrine glands:

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1. Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is part of the diencephalon that forms the floor
and part of the lateral wall of the third ventricle, including the chiasma
opticum, corpus mammillare, tuber cinereum, and infundibulum; The
pituitary gland is also present in this section, but its physiological function is
different. Hyphothalami nuclei help activate, control, and integrate
peripheral autonomic mechanisms, endocrine activity, and various somatic
functions (Dorland, 2011: 546).
The hypothalamus produces chemical regulatory, releasing and
inhibitory factors. This regulatory factor acts on the anterior pituitary gland.

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 2. Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland is sometimes called the master of glands because the
pituitary coordinates the various functions of the other endocrine glands.
Some pituitary hormones have a direct effect, some simply control the
rate at which other organs are released. The pituitary controls the rate at
which its own hormones are released through a feedback mechanism, when
levels of other endocrine hormones in the blood signal the pituitary to slow or
speed up the release of its hormones.
This gland is located at the base of the cerebrum and produces various
hormones that regulate the activities of other glands. Therefore, the pituitary
gland is called the master gland. The pituitary gland is divided into three
parts, namely the anterior, pars intermedia, and the posterior.

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Lobus anterior (adenohipofisis)

Adenohipofisis consists of three parts,

a. Pars distalis (pars anterior).

Based on the ability to stain, the functional cells of the pars distalis
adenohypophysis are divided into two, chromophils (high ability to stain)
and chromophobes (low ability to stain).
Chromophils are further divided into acidopils (staining using acid
dye) and basophils (staining using basic dye), both of which are the main
secretory cells of the pars distalis.

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Acidopils are the most abundant cells in the pars distalis and granules, consisting
of two:

1. Somatotrophs that function to secrete somatotropin, are stimulated by SRH

and are inhibited by somatostatin and mammotrophs.
2. Mammotrophs contain prolactin, to develop the mammary glands during
pregnancy and lactation after birth. Stimulated by PRH and oxytocin and
inhibited by PIF.

Basophils are granular cells of three types:

1. Corticotrophs secrete ACTH and LPH and are stimulated by CRH.

2. Thyrotophs contain TSH and are also known as thyrotropins. Stimulated
by TRH and inhibited by the presence of T3 and T4 in the blood.
3. Gonadotrophs secrete FSH and LH. Stimulated by LHRH and inhibited by
various hormones produced by the ovaries and testes.Pars intermedia

b. Pars tuberalis

In brief, the hormones produced by adenohipofisis are:

1. Growth hormone-Human Growth Hormone / somatotropin (STH).

2. Thyrotropin hormone controls the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine.
3. The hormone adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)
4. Hormone Melanocytes Stimulating Hormone (MSH)

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 5. Gonadotropic hormones:

a. FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) stimulates the development of

Graaf follicles in the ovaries and the formation of spermatozoa in the
testes.
b. LH (Luteinizing hormone) or ICSH (Interstitial-Cell Stimulating
Hormone) controls the secretion of estrogen, progesterone in the ovaries
and testosterone in the testes.
c. Luteotropin, LTH or prolactin controls milk secretion, maintaining the
presence of the corpus luteum during pregnancy.

Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)

Neurohypophysis consists of 3 parts,

a. Median eminence
b. Infundibulum

Pars nervosa, secretes hormones:

 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) functions to regulate water in the kidneys /

reduce urine output
 The oxytocin hormone functions to regulate uterine contractions and the
release of breast milk

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P: Pituitary cells, arrows: herring bodies are extensions of nerve fibers where the
secretion of neurons, vasopressin, and ADH is stored.

3. Pineal gland
The pineal gland is a small structure
located at the base of the brain. The
pineal gland is located at the top of the
3rd ventricle of the brain or posterior
to the midbrain.
From the pineal gland there are
several substances that can be
isolated, namely melatonin, serotonin, norepinephrine, and histamine. The
main hormone produced by the pineal gland is melatonin, a derivative of the
amino acid tryptophan. But even without visual cues, melatonin levels in the
blood rise and fall on a daily (circadian) cycle with peak levels occurring in
the wee hours of the morning (affecting human wake and sleep cycles and
photoperiod).

The pineal gland mechanism can be seen in the diagram below:

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4. Adenoids (thyroid)
The thyroid gland or adenoids are
located on the left and right of the trachea
(2 lobes) in the thyroid isthmus tissue of
the front of the neck below the Adam's
apple in front of the trachea.
Microscopically, the gland consists of
follicles in the form of sacs. The thyroid gland produces secretions in the
form of thyroid colloids containing iodine (thyroid hormone) compounds.
Other hormones secreted by the thyroid gland are the hormone thyroxine
(T4), the hormone triiodothyronine (T3), and thyrocalcitonin. Thyroid
secretion is regulated by thyrotropic hormone / TSH. The function of the
thyroid gland works to stimulate the oxidation process, regulate the use of
O2, release CO2, regulate the body's metabolism and is responsible for the
normal work of every body cell.

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 The thyroid is a gland that is shaped like a twin lobe and between them can
be a precarious area. The thyroid and parathyroid are related to each other, as
seen in the image below.

The thyroid gland produces the hormone thyroxine which affects the
metabolism of body cells and regulation of body temperature. Thyroxine contains
a lot of iodine. The functions of the thyroxine hormone include:

1. Increase the metabolic rate of cells to achieve physiological needs

2. Affect the growth / development and differentiation of organs, especially
bones and brain
3. Affects several parts of mental development
4. Influencing the distribution and exchange of water, electrolytes, and
proteins
5. Affects gluconeogenesis

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 6. Affects the activity of the nervous system (reflexes are increasingly
sensitive, awareness is high, if thyroxine is high)
7. Affects intestinal motility, supports the flow of digestive juices (associated
with diarrhea and constipation)
8. Affects the cardiovascular system, namely increasing the heart rate

The function of the hormone thyrocalcitonin helps maintain blood calcium

levels, affects the effect of parathyroid hormone, suppresses the resorption of
calcium from bones, thereby reducing the back up of calcium from the bones to
the blood. The secretion of the hormone thyrocalcitonin depends on the body's
calcium level. If the calcium level is high, the secretion of the hormone
thyrocalcitonin is low.

The formation of the hormones T3 and T4:

a) Absorbed iodine (in the form of iodide salts) is channeled to the
follicular cells and becomes elemental iodine,
b) At the same time, the cells will secrete the protein thyroglobulin
into the follicle,
c) Element iodine + thyroglobulin then converts tyrosine (as.amino)
in the thyroglobulin molecule to thyroxine.
Thyroxine storage and release

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 a) The thyroxine formed is stored in the follicle (part of the
thyroglobulin),
b) If to be released, the hormone is broken down from thyroglobulin
(with the help of proteolytic enzymes) and then into the blood
(free form of thyroxine),
c) In the blood, it combines with plasma proteins and is finally
released to the tissue cells.

5. Parathyroid glands

The parathyroid attaches to the thyroid gland. Each lateral lobe of the
thyroid contains two small glands that are yellow-brown in color. The
parathyroid glands are innervated by sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers.
The parathyroid glands produce secretions in the form of parathyroid
hormone (PTH) or parathormone with the function of regulating calcium,
phosphate metabolism and controlling the amount in blood and bone.

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 If PTH is not present, blood calcium will decrease and phosphate
increases. PTH causes bone demineralization, by destroying collagen, base
substances and bone hydroxyapatite crystals, so that calcium & phosphate
rise. However, in the renal tubule, PTH works to increase calcium filtrate
reabsorption and decrease phosphate reabsorption so that blood calcium
decreases, blood phosphate increases.

PTH function setting:

PTH secretion is regulated by blood calcium levels. If the level is high, the
secretion will decrease - negative feedback mechanism.

6. Thymus gland
The thymus gland is an organ in the endocrine and lymphatic systems. This
gland secretes the hormone thymosin and stimulates lymphocyte production.

7. Adrenal glands (medulla and cortex)

The adrenal glands are spherical, attached to the top of the kidneys. In
each kidney there is one suprarenal gland and is divided into two parts,

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namely the outer (cortex) and the middle (medulla). These glands are lined
with fat and have an extensive blood supply.

Hormones secreted:
Adrenal cortex (outer)
1. Zona glomerulose: mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) and
deoxicorticosterone
2. Zone fasciculate: glucocorticoids
3. Zona reticularis: androgens, estrogens
Adrenal medulla
Catecholamines: 80-90% epinephrine (adrenaline), 10-20%
norepinephrine
Damage to the cortex results in Addison's disease with the following
symptoms: fatigue, decreased appetite, nausea, vomiting, internal pain. In a
state of fear or in a state of danger, adrenaline production increases so that the
heart rate increases and pumps more blood. Another symptom is dilated
bronchioles, dilated pupils, wide open lids, followed by standing hair.

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8. Pancreas

Several groups of cells in the pancreas known as islets of Langerhans

function as endocrine glands that produce the hormone insulin. This hormone
controls the concentration of glucose in the blood. Excess glucose will be
carried to liver cells and then it will be broken down into glycogen for
storage. This hormone deficiency will cause diabetes. In addition to
producing insulin, the pancreas also produces the hormone glucagon which
works antagonistically with the insulin hormone.

9. Ovaries (and follicular corpus luteum)

The hormones produced by the ovaries are estrogen (estradiol, estriol,
estron) and progesterone. Apart from being secreted by the ovaries, estradiol
is also secreted by the placenta, adrenal & testes in a smaller amount than the
ovaries. The hormone estrogen is also called follicular hormone, because it is
continuously produced by ovarian follicles, estrogen is stimulated by FSH.
The function of estrogen:

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 1. Development and maintenance of female reproductive organs
(uterus, uterine tube, vagina, external genitalia, chest, pubic and
axillary hair)
2. Affect electrolyte metabolism
3. Influencing behavior
4. Increase sexual desire & control
5. Affects the growth of the ductal system in the mammary glands
6. Stimulates uterine contractions

Meanwhile, the formation of progeterone is stimulated by LH and serves

to prepare the uterine wall in order to receive a fertilized egg. The placenta
forms estrogen and progesterone during pregnancy to prevent the formation
of FSH and LH. Thus, these two hormones can sustain pregnancy.

10. Testicles
In the testes, there are interstitial cells (Leydig cells) that secrete
androgens (androgenic hormone) and the main secretion product is
testosterone. The functions of testosterone are:
1. For the development and maintenance of male sex organs
2. Secondary sexual traits
3. Affects growth, protein metabolism, libido, and hair distribution
4. Inhibits ICSH secretion
The regulation of testosterone secretion is regulated using a negative
feedback mechanism between ICSH & testosterone, high testosterone levels
then decreased ICSH secretion.

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 The conclusions of these endocrine glands can be seen in the following table:

2.3 Functions of the Endocrine Glands

1. Hormone Producer - Endocrine glands are responsible for producing various types
of hormones which will be distributed to the blood when needed by certain body
tissues.
2. Controlling Activity - Endocrine glands are responsible for controlling the activity
of the body's glands in order to function normally and optimally.
3. Stimulating Activity - Endoctrin glands are also tasked with stimulating the
activity of the body's glands to then be conveyed to the nervous system and create
an effect from these stimuli.
4. Tissue Growth - Endoctrin glands also affect tissue growth in humans so that
these tissues function optimally.
5. Regulate Metabolism - The endocrine glands also function to regulate metabolism
in the body, the body's oxidation system and serve to increase glucose absorption
in the body and in the small intestine.
6. Substance Metabolism - The endocrine glands are responsible for influencing the
function of metabolism of fats, vitamins, metabolism of proteins, minerals, water
and hydrates in the body to be optimal.

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2.4 How the Endocrine System Works

When it is an important part of the human body, the endocrine system glands
control the release of hormones. Each gland is responsible for producing hormones that help
control necessary bodily functions. Without this gland, the overall control of vital processes
will be threatened. The glands of the endocrine system are one of the most complex
structures in the human body.

Each gland is responsible for secreting a certain type of hormone which is used in
various capacities throughout the body. This hormone is used for everything from growth
and development to regulating the body's metabolic functions. The glands of the endocrine
system can also suffer from various disorders that affect various tissues and signals
throughout the body.

2.4 Abnormalities in the Endocrine System

1) Hyperthyroidism is an excessive level of thyroid hormone in the blood.

Hyperthyroidism may present in the form of Graves' disease, toxic nodular
goiter or secondary hyperthyroidism.
2) Graves' disease (goiter diffuse toxika) is believed to be caused by an antibody
that stimulates the thyroid to produce excess thyroid hormone.
3) Hypothyroidism can be defined as a condition in which the thyroid gland is
underactive and fails to produce enough hormones. Hypothyroidism occurs due
to decreased levels of thyroid hormones in the blood (MICSEDEMIA).
4) Hashimoto's disease, occurs due to antibodies that damage the thyroid gland.
Leads to a decrease in HT, an increase in TSH and TRH due to minimal negative
feedback.
5) Endemic goiter, due to deficiency of Iodine in food. This causes the thyroid cells
to become overactive and hypertrophic in an attempt to absorb all the remaining
iodine in the blood.
6) Goitre is an enlarged adenoids caused by the addition of adenoids tissue that
produces large amounts of thyroid hormone, causing complaints such as

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 palpitations, sweating, shaking, stuttering speech, diarrhea, weight loss, enlarged
eyes, this disease is called hyperthyroidism. (graves' disease).
7) Growth disorders, a person who has excess growth hormone will experience
extraordinary growth. In children, excess growth hormone is called gigantism
and in adults it is called ackromegaly. On the other hand, if a child is deficient in
hormones, he will experience dwarfism.
8) Hyperprolactinemia, excessive prolactin secretion. This can cause the production
/ discharge of breast milk (galactoorhea) even though it does not contain or does
not have menstruation (amemorrhea).
9) Failure of the gonads (hypogonadism,) due to lack of secretion of Lutein
Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH). This situation is
usually experienced by men, namely in the form of failure to produce a normal
sperm count.
10) Thyroid disease, excessive thyroid hormone as a result of an overactive thyroid
gland is called hyperthyroidism. This will cause the body to raise an elevated
metabolic state. This condition will result in many systems in the body
developing abnormal functions. Hypothyroidism is a condition in which
underdeveloped thyroid hormones are secreted from an underactive thyroid
gland. This slows down processes in the body and may result in fatigue, weak
heart rate, dry skin, weight gain, and constipation. In children, this disease
causes slow growth and delayed puberty.
11) Diabetes, a disease of the endocrine system that we often encounter. There are
two kinds of diabetes. The first type occurs when the pancreas fails to produce
sufficient insulin. Meanwhile, the second type occurs because the body is unable
to respond to insulin normally. Diabetes can cause kidney failure, neuropathy
and nerve damage, blindness, leg amputation, heart disease, and stroke.
12) Osteoporosis, occurs in both women and men. This occurs when the bone
structure becomes weaker and looks like it is cracked or broken. Many factors
contribute to it, including a lack of the hormone estrogen during female
menopause, or a lack of the male hormone tetosterone as you get older.
13) Polycystic Ovary Syndrome, Pholycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) is an
endocrine disease that affects approximately 5% of women. Women who
experience PCOS produce excessive amounts of male sex hormones

25
 (endogenous). This can hinder the ovulation process and lead to infertility.
PCOS sufferers may experience menstrual disorders or even absent
menstruation, infertility, excessive hair growth. This disease can cause long-term
health problems in women.
14) Menopause, which is a period of body change in which the levels of estrogen,
testosterone, and progesterone decrease and eventually stop production
altogether. Lack of estrogen causes the body to feel hot, sweating, emotionally
unstable, moody, vaginal dryness, disturbed urine, loss of concentration, etc.
There are many long-term risks that can occur such as increased cardiovascular
disease, obesity, changes in cholesterol levels, increased risk of osteoporosis,
Alzhiemer's disease, etc.
15) Diabetes insipidus, a disease caused by a deficiency of the hormone antidiuresis.
This problem arises from damage to the pituitary stalk or the posterior pituitary
gland. Patients with diabetes insipidus always feel thirsty and urinate frequently.
16) Adrenal insufficiency or Addison's disease, which is a result of impaired
function of the adrenal cortex and directly results in under-secretion of adrenal
corticosteroid hormones. Symptoms include: weakness, fatigue, lack / loss of
weight, moodiness, lethargy, vomiting, anorexia, and hyperpigmentation.

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 CHAPTER III

CLOSING

1. Conclusion
The endocrine system in relation to the nervous system, that is, controls
and integrates body functions. These two systems work together to maintain this
dynamic balance in the body. Their functions are related to each other, but can
be distinguished by certain characteristics. The endocrine system has a function
to help secrete hormones that work in the nervous system, regulate growth and
development, and control sexual and reproductive development. It has general
characteristics, among others, that all endocrine glands are small and contain
many blood vessels, based on the arrangement of secretory cells, Hormonal
glands are divided into sinusoid types and follicular types, glands in the
endocrine system are only functionally related without any structural
relationship, the amount of secretions secreted depends on the body's needs.
Endocrine glands found in humans, among others, the pituitary, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, and body organs containing endocrine glands, for
example, the pancreas, gonads, kidneys, stomach and small intestine. Endocrine
glands in humans have an important role as regulating all other hormonal
activities (along with nerves) in the human body, for example regulating the
metabolism of calcium, carbohydrates and lipids, regulating osmoregulation,
substances secreted or excreted, all these activities are assisted by the presence
of hormones produced by endocrine glands.

2. Suggestions
In the endocrine system, there are various kinds of disorders and
disorders, both due to internal and external factors, such as viruses or food
consumption errors. For that, take care of your health so you can always do your
activities properly.

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