TAXONOMIC CHARACTERS

SAWERA AHMED 0269-BH-E-ZOO-18

SUBMITTED TO
DR. MUHAMMAD TAHIR
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Contents
 Morphological characters
General external morphology
Special structures (e.g. genitalia)
Internal morphology (anatomy)
Embryology
Karyology and other cytological factors

 Physiological characters
Metabolic factors
Body secretions
Genic sterility factors

 Molecular characters

Immunological distance
Electrophoretic differences
Amino acid sequences of proteins
DNA hybridization
DNA and RNA sequences
 Behavioral characters
Courtship and other ethological isolating mechanisms
Other behavior patterns

 Ecological characters
Habit and habitats
Food
Seasonal variations
Parasites and hosts

 Geographic characters

General biogeographic distribution patterns

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Sympatric-allopatric relationship of populations

Taxonomic characters
A taxonomic character maybe defined as any attribute of an organism or of a group of
organism by which it differ from an organism belonging to a different taxonomic category
or reassembles an organism belonging to the same category. (Mayr)
Ordered characters are in this way ascribes which grant situation of a creature in the
conventional grouping. Ordered character subsequently have a twofold capacity;
1. They have an analytic angle as markers of distinction.
2. And they work as markers of connections.
Contrasts between life forms having a place with a similar ordered class are not ordered
character.[ CITATION May91 \l 1033 ]

Kinds of Taxonomic Characters

Early taxonomists utilized morphological characters only to recognize ordered classifications
and as a fundamental for characterization .Although morphological characters are as yet
valuable as others. They are being enhanced to a regularly expanding function by different sorts
of characters, as recorded and talked about underneath. This isn't just important to allow the
utilization of the organic species idea, yet the incredible expanding of the utilization of new
sorts of ordered characters has expanded the unwavering quality of orders. A solitary character
isn't as dependable as a character complex. Anyway we never dismiss the way that characters
are of equivalent significance. It is here that the craft of the taxonomist comes in, for he needs
to choose what weight must be given to each character. The premise on which grouping are
fabricated perhaps significantly expanded by utilizing all stages in the existence pattern of an
animal varieties. Notwithstanding the ordered characters introduced by grown-up guys,
taxonomist ought to likewise utilize those of grown-up females, of the different youthful or
hatchling stages, and of the eggs. Regularly characters of youthful stages are more useful than
those of the develop creatures. Hence the different elements of the anopheles maculipennis
complex perhaps more promptly recognized by characters of the egg than by those of the
grown-ups, and the grouping of the Aleyrodidae (white flies) depends basically on the pupae,
which is the stage most generally utilized for reason for ID. Moreover polygenetic
characterization may as often as possible be grown more promptly from larval characters than
from grown-ups in numerous gatherings of arthropods where the grown-ups are savage or
dependent upon intermingling. In bunches with complete transformation, advancement
regularly continues freely in hatchlings and grown-ups, and ends drawn from those of another.
[ CITATION Sys12 \l 1033 ]
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The kinds of available taxonomic characters may be somewhat arbitrarily classified under five
headings;
1. Morphology
2. Physiological
3. Ecological
4. Ethological
5. Geographical
6. Molecular

Kinds of Taxonomic Characters

 Morphological characters
General external morphology
Special structures (e.g. genitalia)
Internal morphology (anatomy)
Embryology
Karyology and other cytological factors

 Physiological characters
Metabolic factors
Body secretions
Genic sterility factors

 Molecular characters

Immunological distance
Electrophoretic differences
Amino acid sequences of proteins
DNA hybridization
DNA and RNA sequences
Restriction endonuclease analyses
Other molecular differences

 Behavioral characters
Courtship and other ethological isolating mechanisms
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Other behavior patterns

 Ecological characters
Habit and habitats
Food
Seasonal variations
Parasites and hosts

 Geographic characters

General biogeographic distribution patterns

Sympatric-allopatric relationship of populations

1. Morphological Characters
Since outer morphology has given an essential and apparent wellspring of ordered characters,
such characters need little conversation here. They range from such superficial highlights as
plumage and pelage characters of winged animals and warm blooded creatures, through
straight scale checks of fish and reptiles, to the exceptionally moderate and phylogenetically
significant structures and sclerites of the arthropod body. Creatures with an outer skeleton
(arthropods, mollusks, and so on) present all in all the best exhibit and most helpful scope of
outside basic characters.[ CITATION Wil16 \l 1033 ]

Genitalic Structures
On account of the way that conceptive seclusion is a sine qua non at the species level,
differeness in genitalia have been utilized in numerous gatherings as the last court of allure in
delimiting spec1es.It has even been proposed by Dufour and others that a lock-and-key
relationship exists as respects the copulatory structures of the guys and females of those
species with sclerotized genitalia. Such gives off an impression of being the situation in specific
gatherings of creepy crawlies, c.g., the Fulgoridae. Then again, genitalic characters have been
found to differ in similar way as different characters (Jordan, 1905). All in all, it might be said
that genitalic contrasts must be assessed simply like different characters. In bunches where
their significance has been demonstrated they are typically helpful, on the grounds that
genitalic structures seem, by all accounts, to be among the first to change throughout
speciation.

Internal Morphology
Life systems gives a plentiful wellspring of ordered characters in for all intents and purposes all
gatherings of higher creatures. How-ever, the degree to which such characters have been
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utilized shifts incredibly from gathering to gathering, by and large in reverse proportion to the
bounty and handiness of the outer morphological characters. In numerous gatherings of
vertebrates chosen bits of the inner skeleton (e.g., the skull) are regularly protected and utilized
in identification, however as a rule both the hard and delicate pieces of the interior life systems
of most creature bunches are utilized fundamentally as a wellspring of characters for the
clarification of higher classifications. Scientists, obviously, must arrangement only with hard
parts, and therefore they have zeroed in consideration on numerous helpful skeletal characters
in gatherings of creatures with an interior skeleton. [ CITATION Mic70 \l 1033 ]

Embryology
Near embryology offers ordered characters of incredible phylogenetic significance. Accordingly
cleavage examples, gastrulation, and other embryological wonders might be trademark for
entire phyla or for arrangement of phyla and along these lines help significantly in the
comprehension of our most elevated classes. Then again, in such gatherings as creepy crawlies,
the aggregate (holoblastic) cleavage of the Collembola (springtailS) accentuates the Wide hole
which isolates this gathering from the other Apterygota (crudely wingless bugs) and the
Pterygota, regardless of the optional return of this cleavage type in a couple exceptionally
specific parasitic Hymenoptera close to the highest point of the bug arrangement. [ CITATION
Wil16 \l 1033 ]

Karyology
Karyological and other cytological characters might be valuable to we taxonomist, however the
level of separation and cutoff points of variety in chromosomal structure must be tried in each
gathering before the significance of such characters can be resolved. The straightforward
cytological character is chromosome number. This is controlled by a generally straightforward
method including the devastating or spreading of the testicles on a slide. Chromosome
numbers have been recorded for a great many creatures, and the aftereffects of such
investigations have been utilized as proof of phylogenetic relationship by White (1945, 1949),
and other. Chromosome morphology is being utilized by the plant taxonomist to a regularly
expanding degree. Karyology is by all accounts similarly encouraging in numerous genera and
groups of creatures. Dobzhansky, Patterson, and Sturtevant, just as a few different creators,
have made generous commitments as of late as far as anyone is concerned of chromosomal
variety in Drosophila. Such firmly related species as Drosophila paseudoobscura and D.
persimilis are analyzed more effectively by their chromosome setup than by some other
component. In the sort Sciara additionally the chromosomes have magnificent symptomatic
worth; in an investigation of the Finnish bugs of the family Lygaeidae, all the genera and
virtually all the 56 cytologically explored species could be identified by their chromosomes
alone. A thorough synopsis of the field is given by White (1945). A portion of these cytological
contrasts meddle with chromosome matching and hence fill in as disengaging systems. Quality
game plans on chromosomes have been utilized to examine populaces of Drosophila,
Anopheles, and Tendipes (= Chironmmis), and the presence of effusive chromosomes to
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contemplate populaces of grasshoppers (Trimerotmpfis). Such investigations are helpful just if

the understudy has a careful information on cytology. Two species with superficially
indistinguishable chromosomes might be significantly more unique hereditarily than others
with different gross chromosomal contrasts. The chromosomal polymorphism in types of
Drosophila, Trimerotrom's, and others supplies brilliant proof for this. There is an exceptionally
helpful late outline of our insight into the chromosomes of vertebrates (Matthey, 1949)

2. Physiological Characters
Physiological characters have been very unevenly exploited for taxonomic purposes. Yet in
constancy, diversity, and significance they probably far exceed morphological characters. They
have, however, the disadvantage that in most cases their study requires living organisms. Thus
the most suitable subjects for this approach have been forms with a short life cycle, small body
size, or other features which make for ease of laboratory experimentation or observation.
However, the array of physiological characters in general increases with the complexity of the
organism. We can never hope for a complete comparative physiology for taxonomic purposes
Nevertheless, physiological characters are coming into greater use, not only as a supplement to
morphological characters, but as a means for checking conclusions based on other kinds of data
and as an aid in the development of sound classifications .Few detailed comparisons of the
physiological constants of closely related species have so far been undertaken. Growth rates
and egg hatching periods in mosquitoes and growth rates and temperature reactions in various
species of frogs of the genus Rana differ significantly. A combination of two or three hemolysis
constants is absolutely diagnostic for each examined species of the mouse genus Pcromyscns.
The amount of difference between the studied species leucopus, gossypinus, truci, and
eremicus corresponds approximately with the degree of morphological distinctness. The
various species of Daphnia differ in the spectroscopy of their hemoglobin’s. All this work
confirms the View that many, if not most, proteins are species—specific. For a summary of this
field, see Landsteiner (1945).

Metabolic Factors
Up to right now, the microbiologists, particularly the bacteriologists, who have had little
morphology to depend on, have utilized physiological characters both in the advancement of a
classification and for reasons for distinguishing proof? Along these lines enzymatic movement is
a significant ordered character, and both anabolic and catabolic responses are utilized. Cell
science is significant in the differential capacity of specific microbes to respond to specific stains
(as Gram-positive or Gram-negative).' Metabolic prerequisites are critical, as, for example,
regardless of whether the microscopic organisms are oxygen consuming or anaerobic, and how
social development examples and hue create on normalized media. In spite of the fact that
understudies of higher plants and creatures have once in a while utilized characters, for
example, these for motivations behind identification, by and by numerous more extensive
physiological cycles, particularly differential development rates and other formative wonders,
have demonstrated supportive in the division of firmly related species.[ CITATION Sys12 \l 1033 ]
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Serological, Protein, and Other Biochemical Differences

These have been getting expanding consideration as ordered devices. Serology is worried about
the nature and communications of antigens and antibodies. Antigens are substances fit for
inciting the development of antibodies when brought into the circulatory system of other-
creatures. Antibodies acquired from the blood sera of vaccinated creatures are serum globulins
which are delivered in light of the presentation of an unfamiliar antigen. These are the essential
substances worried in serological respond particles. Hidden these-responses is the standard of
quantitative specific i.e., a given sort of counter acting agent will respond all the more
unequivocally, under practically identical conditions, with the specific sort of antigen utilized in
its arrangement than with some other substances? Precipitin response was found by Kraus in
1897 and has been broadly utilized in the scientific classification of microorganisms. It
comprises in the development of an obvious hasten at the interface when one unites an
antigen and the comparing antiserum. The precipitin test was first applied to wide "ordered
issues by Nuttall (1901), who indicated that the overall powers of precipitin responses
resembled the methodical places of the species whose antigens were tried.

Genic Sterility Factors

Even the earliest taxonomists knew that there is much sterility between members of different
species. In fact, sterility has often been cited as the species criterion. It is now known that
sterility is only one of the many existing isolating mechanisms, and that it is gradually built up.
In some cases distinct species may be completely infertile, while in other cases there may be a
considerable amount of sterility even between subspecies of - a single species. Sterility is thus a
taxonomic character that must be used with discrimination.

3. Ecological Characters
Through crafted by field naturalists and trial biologists during ongoing many years, it has been
entrenched that every types of creature has its own scope of resistance of environment, food,
rearing season, and other biological variables. No two species with indistinguishable
environmental prerequisites can existing together a similar spot (Gause's' standard) (Lack,
1949). Similarly it has been appeared for genera the still higher classes that each involves a
different versatile level or versatile zone. Taking into account these properties of the ordered
classes, it should be conceivable to define them biologically and to determine them to have the
assistance of environmental characters. This is, surely, the situation. Need (1947) appeared, for
example, that every sort of Galapagos finches possesses a different natural zone. In spite of the
fact that right now most genera and other higher classifications are defined on simply
morphological grounds, it is plausible that all the more normally defined genera, families, and
so on, will come about because of enlarging the definition of these classes with environmental
characters. Natural characters are of significantly more noteworthy pragmatic significance in
the analysis and partition of kin species.
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Food Preferences
Specific food preferences are important taxonomic characters in monophagous or parasitic
organisms. Numerous insect species have been discovered when those that appeared to live on
the wrong food plant were more closely studied.

Host Discrimination
The strategy for utilizing contrasts in parasites or commensals to recognize incredibly
comparable kin species is valuable. This strategy has been utilized profitably by botanists. For
instance, Pinus jeffreyi Murray is presently perceived as unmistakable from P. ponderosa
Lawson; however entomologists were never in question about this, in light of the fact that
every types of pine is assaulted by an alternate bark insect, Dendroctonus Jeffrey Hopkins on
Jeffrey pine and D. brevicomis LeConte on Ponderosa pine. Emerson (1935) discovered
morphological contrasts between two exceptionally comparative types of termites simply after
he had gotten an idea regarding their peculiarity by contrasts in the termitophile creepy
crawlies found in their separate homes. Fundamentally the same as types of freshwater
turbellarians may contrast in the ciliates that live on their surface. Parasites may likewise be
utilized in the classification of the higher classifications. The utilization of host parasite relations
for the clarification of ordered issues has been depicted in detail by Metcall' (1929). Kellogg
(1896, 1913) used this strategy widely in his investigation of the Mallophaga. For later
conversations of this subject see Clay (19:19) and Hopkins (1949). Environmental characters are
likewise valuable at the infra specific level. Virtually every geological, and regularly miniature
topographical, race contrasts in its environmental necessities from different races. In herbal
science such nearby environmental races have been called ecotypes (Turesson, 1922) and have
been concentrated especially by Clausen, Keck, and Hiesey (1948).

Parasite Discrimination
We have just referenced the instance of bark scarab genera, the types of which were not
appropriately separated until figured out as per the host. The tapeworms Hymenolepis nana in
man and H. friendly in rodents don't contrast fundamentally in morphology, despite the fact
that have specifity shows the presence of contrasts in the two cases.[ CITATION May91 \l 1033 ]

4. Ethological Characters
Similarly as morphological attributes change irom spec1es to species and from family to class, in
this manner providing material for an ordered analysm, so personal conduct standards change
from gathering to gathering. It might be too soon to discuss a study of near ethology, yet
beginnings have been made in the investigation of the unit components of which personal
conduct standards of some creature bunches are made and the examination out of their
developmental modification from species to species.This was finished by Lorenz (1941) for most
types of stream ducks (Anatini), by Spieth (1947) for the types of the Drosophila willistoni
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gathering, and by Jacobs (1950) for grasshoppers. It has been discovered that the personal
conduct standard is on the Whole made out of homologous components inside a given
scientific categorization, yet that there is extraordinary assortment in the appearances of these
components, and that a large number of the adjustments are species explicit. [ CITATION Bru03 \l
1033 ]

Courtship and Other isolating mechanisms

Similarly as morphological attributes change irom spec1es to species and from family to class, in
this manner providing material for an ordered analysm, so personal conduct standards change
from gathering to gathering. It might be too soon to discuss a study of near ethology, yet
beginnings have been made in the investigation of the unit components of which personal
conduct standards of some creature bunches are made and the examination out of their
developmental modification from species to species.This was finished by Lorenz (1941) for most
types of stream ducks (Anatini), by Spieth (1947) for the types of the Drosophila willistoni
gathering, and by Jacobs (1950) for grasshoppers. It has been discovered that the personal
conduct standard is on the Whole made out of homologous components inside a given
scientific categorization, yet that there is extraordinary assortment in the appearances of these
components, and that a large number of the adjustments are species explicit. [ CITATION For08 \l
1033 ]

Other Behavior Patterns

Notwithstanding personal conduct standards which serves segregating components, an infinite
assortment of conduct characters is accessible to the taxonomist. For instance, the idea of the
webbing developed by different bugs, vermin, and caterpillars may; be utilized at different
levels in the classification. , The two honey bee genera Anthidimn and Dianthidium were
delayed to be perceived on morphological grounds, yet completely known types of the previous
develop their homes bf cottony plant fibers, those of the last from resinous plant exudations
and sand or little stones.

5. Geographical Characters
Topographical characters are among the most valuable of devices for explaining confounded
ordered pictures and for testing ordered speculations. Most stable classifications show some
relationship with me or related ecologic highlights.[ CITATION Bru03 \l 1033 ]

General Biogeographic Patterns

The broad geographic patterns with which we are concerned have been determined by the
study of distributional patterns of large numbers of groups of plants and animals. Bio
geographers have divided the world into various realms, regions, provinces, sub provinces, etc,
based upon generalized comparisons of faunas and floras. These are not rigidly defined, but in
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general they represent distributional centers which exist today or have existed in the past.
Depending on the group, they may be expanding or retreating, and we thus find it more useful
to refer to them as faunas or floras or biotas rather than zones or areas. A taxonomist should
have an understanding of the geological history of the regions in which such biotas center, as
well as a knowledge of the past relationships of the faunas and floras concerned. Al-If-bed with
this information, the interpretation of various higher categories. Can be made on a much
sounder basis.[ CITATION Sys12 \l 1033 ]

6. Molecular Characters
Sub-atomic scientific categorization is especially compelling in blend with different techniques,
for the most part with morphology. The coming of DNA cloning and sequencing strategies have
contributed tremendously to the improvement of sub-atomic scientific categorization and
populace hereditary qualities throughout the most recent twenty years. These cutting edge
strategies have revolutionalised the field of sub-atomic scientific categorization and populace
hereditary qualities with improved logical force and accuracy.

• Immunological separation is a proportion of the quality of an antigen-neutralizer

response that is demonstrative of the transformative separation isolating the populaces being
considered.

• The key distinction among electrophoretic and lopsided impact is that electrophoretic
impact is the impact of the fascination powers between ionic species and dissolvable particles
on the development of particles while awry impact is the impact of the high particle focus in the
arrangement on the development of particles. The terms electrophoretic impact and hilter
kilter impact are generally talked about under the theme "electrolytic conductivity".

• DNA–DNA hybridization by and large alludes to an atomic science procedure that

quantifies the level of hereditary closeness between pools of DNA arrangements. It is typically
used to decide the hereditary separation between two creatures. This has been utilized broadly
in phylogeny and scientific classification.
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