Republic of the Philippines

Department of Education
Region VI- Western Visayas
PAVIA NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Name: ______________________Grade/Strand & Section: _______________ Date: _________

Basic Taxonomic Concepts and Principles, Description, Nomenclature,

Identification, and Classification
(Quarter 3, Week 5-6)

Learning Competencies with Code

 Explain how the structural and developmental characteristics and relatedness of DNA
sequences are used in classifying living things (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-14)
 Identify the unique /distinctive characteristics of a specific taxon relative to other taxa
(STEM BIO11/12 IIIhj-15)
 Describe species diversity and cladistics, including the types of evidence and procedures
that can be used to establish evolutionary relationships (STEM_BIO11/12-Iva-h-1)

Background Information for the Learners

Systematics is the study of the kinds and diversity of organisms and of any and all
relationships among them. Tracing phylogeny is one of the goals of systematics; hence, it is
considered as the study of biological diversity in an evolutionary context. Systematists use data
ranging from fossils to molecules and genes to infer evolutionary relationships. These information
enable biologists to construct a comprehensive tree of life that will continue to be refined as
additional data are collected.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/PhylogeneticTree.png

Lines of evidence to infer evolutionary relationships:

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1. Fossil evidence
2. Homologies
Similar characters due to relatedness are known as homologies. Homologies can be
revealed by comparing the anatomies of different living things, looking at cellular similarities
and differences, studying embryological development, and studying vestigial structures within
individual organisms.
Each leaf has a very different shape and function, yet all are homologous structures,
derived from a common ancestral form. The pitcher plant and Venus' flytrap use leaves to trap
and digest insects. The bright red leaves of the poinsettia look like flower petals. The cactus
leaves are modified into small spines which reduce water loss and can protect the cactus from
herbivory.
Another example of homology is the forelimb of tetrapods (vertebrates with legs). Frogs,
birds, rabbits and lizards all have different forelimbs, reflecting their different lifestyles. But
those different forelimbs all share the same set of bones - the humerus, the radius, and the
ulna. These are the same bones seen in fossils of the extinct transitional animal,
Eusthenopteron, which demonstrates their common ancestry.
Organisms that are closely related to one another share many anatomical similarities.
Sometimes the similarities are conspicuous, as between crocodiles and alligators, but in
other cases considerable study is needed for a full appreciation of relationships.
Developmental biology which is studying the embryological development of living things
provides clues to the evolution of present-day organisms. During some stages of
development, organisms exhibit ancestral features in whole or incomplete form.
3. Biogeography
The geographic distribution of species in time and space as influenced by many
factors, including Continental Drift and log distance dispersal.
4. Molecular clocks help track evolutionary time
The base sequences of some regions of DNA change at a rate consistent enough to
allow dating of episodes in past evolution. Other genes change in a less predictable way.

Classification is linked to Phylogeny

5. Biologists use phylogenetic trees for many purposes, including:
I. Testing hypotheses about evolution
II. Learning about the characteristics of extinct species and ancestral lineages
III. Classifying organisms
The connection between classification and phylogeny is that hierarchical classification is
reflected in the progressively finer branching of phylogenetic trees. The branching patterns in
some cases match the hierarchical classification of groups nested within more inclusive groups.
In other situations, however, certain similarities among organisms may lead taxonomists to place
a species within a group of organisms (for example genus or family) other than the group to
which it is closely related. If systematists conclude that such mistake has occurred, the organism
may be reclassified (that is placed in a different genus or family) to accurately reflect its
evolutionary history.

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 The taxonomic system was devised by Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778). It is a hierarchical
system since organisms are grouped into ever more inclusive categories from species up to
kingdom. In 1981, a category higher than a kingdom, called domain, was proposed by Carl
Woese. The table below illustrates how four species are classified using the present
classification system. (Note that it is standard practice to italicize the genus and species names).

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 The Linnaean taxonomy which is hierarchical in nature is the most employed system
nowadays. This system was created long before scientists understood that organisms evolved.
Nomenclature refers to the practice of assigning scientific names. Binomial comes from
the words “bi” meaning “two” and “nomen” meaning “name”. A species name consists of two
parts: the genus or generic name and the specific epithet. The first letter of the genus is always
capitalized (e.g. Canis) while the specific epithet is not capitalized (e.g. familiaris). One can
distinguish a species name from the way it is written. Species name can be in bold letters or
underlined or italicized.

Example:

A dichotomous key is a tool that helps identify unknown organisms to some taxonomic
level (e.g., species, genus, family, etc.). The key is constructed in such a way that a series of
choices is made that leads the user to the correct identity of a sample organism. "Dichotomous"
means, "divided into two parts." Therefore, a dichotomous key always offer two choices for each
step, each of which describes key characteristics of a particular organism or group of organisms.

Systematics is the study of the diversity of organisms in the evolutionary context. It

intends to use phylogeny in classifying organisms. Phylogeny is the study of the evolutionary

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history and relationships among organisms. Evidences from a wide variety of sources including
paleontology, embryology, morphology, anatomy and molecular biology can be used to establish
phylogeny. Over the last few centuries systematists have developed different approaches to
show relationships among organism. The most commonly used is cladistics.
Cladistics studies relationships between taxa using shared derived characters. The basic
assumption behind cladistics is that members of a group share a common recent ancestor and
are thus more "closely related" to one another than they are to other groups of organisms.
Related groups of organisms are recognized because they share a set of derived characters.
These derived characters were inherited from a recent ancestor.
Basically, a family picture represents a family tree. Family trees show how people are
related to each other. Similarly, scientists use phylogenetic trees like cladograms to study the
relationships among organisms. Sometimes, family trees are used to show relationships between
individuals. Those who are closely related are located closer together than those who are only
distantly related. For instance, in a family tree, we can see that the siblings are close together,
indicating a close genetic relationship. But the siblings are far from their great aunt, indicating a
more distant genetic relationship. Family trees can also be used to see ancestral connections.
That is, we can see that all the people in the last generation have the same great-great-
grandparents in common. This same idea of relationships can be used in science. Biologists use
phylogenetic trees to illustrate evolutionary relationships among organisms.

Directions / Instructions
Read and study the different activities. Write your answer on a separate sheet of paper.

Exercises / Activities

Activity 1. The Unique You and I

Answer the following questions:
1. What makes you unique and what makes you similar with the others?

2. What are the multiple lines of evidence and how are these used to infer evolutionary
relatedness?

Activity 2. Making Mnemonic

Make a Mnemonic on the Linnaean System
Example: Kings Play Chess On Fine Glass Sets

Activity 3. Making Dichotomous Key

Make your own dichotomous key to identify your plants or animals.

Activity 4. Building the Tree

Make a phylogenetic tree of animals showing their evolutionary relationships. This
tree should be primarily based on physical characteristics, such as:
I. Presence or absence of a backbone
II. Ability to breathe in air or water
III. Cold or warm blooded
IV. Carnivore, herbivore, or omnivore
V. Presence or absence of hair/fur
VI. Any other external structures such as horns
Procedure:
1. Cut out each animal, including the name (see attached page for the picture of
animals).
2. Lay all the animals on your table and separate them into two groups using the
presence or absence of a backbone as the first character.

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 3. On a separate sheet of paper, start constructing the phylogenetic tree like the one
shown below.

4. Continue separating the animals into smaller groups using the characters in number
two.
5. When an animal reaches the tip of the branch, glue it. Repeat for all other animals in
the
collection.

Activity 5. Making Cladograms

How to Make a Cladogram

(Adapted from ENSI/SENSI lesson plan: Making Cladograms http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/home.html)
Cladograms are diagrams which depict the relationships between different groups of taxa
called “clades”. By depicting these relationships, cladograms reconstruct the evolutionary history
(phylogeny) of the taxa. Cladograms can also be called “phylogenies” or “trees”. Cladograms are
constructed by grouping organisms together based on their shared derived characteristics.

Example:
1. Given these characters and taxa:

Taxa

2. Draw a Venn diagram. Start with the character that is shared by all the taxa on the outside.
Inside each box, write the taxa that have only that set of characters.

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 3. Convert the Venn diagram into a cladogram like so:

Doing Your Own

1. Convert the following data table into a Venn diagram, and then into a cladogram:

2. Make your Venn Diagram in a separate bond paper. (This will be placed in the front
page.)

3. Construct your Cladogram at the back page of the Venn Diagram.

Reflections
Complete the statements below.
I understand
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

I don’t understand
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

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I need more information about
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

References:
Commission on Higher Education (2016). Teaching Guide for Senior High School General
Biology 2
https://www.bu.edu/gk12/eric/cladogram.pdf

Note. Please practice personal hygiene at all times.

Prepared by:

SIENA G. CAJILIG, PhD

Mast

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Modern taxonomy
- Based on evolutionary relationship
Studies the:
 Structural similarities
 Chromosomal structure (karyotypes)
 Reproductive Potential
 Biochemical similarities (comparing dna and amino acid)
 Embryology/development
 Breeding behavior
 Geographic distribution

- Group genus into family, family into order, order into class, class into phylum and
phylum into kingdom
- Species can interbreed each other

The taxonomic system was devised by Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778). It is a hierarchical

system since organisms are grouped into ever more inclusive categories from species up
to kingdom
Phylogeny
- Family tree that study of the evolutionary history and relationships among
organisms
 Root- ancestral lineage
 Tips of branch- descendants of ancestors
 Movement upward- forward motion through time
 Speciation- split in the lineage (branching of the tree)
Cladistics
- relationships between taxa using shared derived characters
 system of classification based on phylogeny
 Derived charact/traits: appear in recent part of lineage but not on older

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Dichotomous key
- identify unknown organisms to some taxonomic level (e.g., species, genus, family, etc.)
- "Dichotomous" means, "divided into two parts." always offer two choices for each step,
 Identifying organism by physical characteristics
 Use series of question to group into hierarchy classification

Cladograms
- diagrams which depict the relationships between different groups of taxa called “clades”
- phylogenies” or “trees
- grouping organisms together based on their shared derived characteristics.

The 6 Kingdoms of Organism

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PROKARYOTES
- Microscopic
- Prokaryotic (lack nucleus)
- Autotrophs (photosynthetic/chemosynthetic)
- Heterotrophs (nonphotosynsthetic)
- Unicellular
2 kingdoms ARCHEABACTERIA & EUBACTERIA
ARCHEABACTERIA
- Live in extreme environment like swamps, deep-ocean hydrothermal vents (oxygen-free
environment)
- Cell walls not made of peptidoglycan (simpler)
 Methanogens, Halophiles
EUBACTERIA
- Live in most habitats
- Cell walls made of peptidoglycan (complex)
 E. coli, cyanobacteria
PROTISTA
- Eukaryotic
- Some have cellulose/chloroplast
- Can be auto/heterotrophs (fungi like)
- Unicellular (some multi/colonial)
- Ex: amoeba, slime mold, kelp
- Simple organ systems
- Lives in moist environment
FUNGI
- Eukaryotes
- Cell walls are chitin
- Heterotrophs
- Mostly multicellular (some unicellular)
- Ex: mushroom, yeast
- Absorbs nutrients from organic materials in the environment
- Stationary
Plants
- Eukaryotes
- Cell walls of cellulose
- Autotrophs
- Multicellular
- Photosynthetic (contains chloroplast)
- Ex: mosses, ferns, trees
- Complex
- Cannot move
- Tissue and organ system
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ANIMALIA
- Eukaryotes
- Do not have cell wall or chloroplasts
- Heterotrophs
- Multicellular
- Ex; sponge, worm, insect
- mobile

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