TOPIC: FORCES OF ATTRACTION

Forces of attraction may be classified as intermolecular or intramolecular forces.

Intermolecular forces (Van der Waals forces) include hydrogen bond, permanent
dipole – permanent dipole, induced dipole – induced dipole (temporary dipole –
temporary dipole). Intramolecular forces are ionic, covalent and metallic bonds.

Intermolecular forces are weak forces of attraction which are formed between
molecules. Intramolecular forces are strong forces of attraction which are formed
within a molecule. The hold atoms together.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Hydrogen Bonding
A hydrogen bond is the electrostatic attraction between polar molecules in which
hydrogen is bonded to a highly electronegative element such as oxygen or nitrogen.
The atom to which hydrogen is bound, must have a lone pair of electrons.

Permanent Dipole – Permanent Dipole

This is a weak force of attraction between atoms of molecules with permanent
dipoles. The dipole is permanent because of the difference in electronegativity of the
atoms across the bond.

Induced Dipole – Induced Dipole (Temporary Dipole)

This is a weak force of attraction between atoms of nonpolar molecules. This occurs
in molecules where there is little to no difference in electronegativity of the atoms
across the bond. There is a temporary shift in dipole moment (electrons shift to one
side of the molecule). The resulting charge causes similar shifts in neighbouring
molecules.
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
Ionic Bonding
An ionic bond occurs when there is a complete transfer of electrons from the orbital
of one atom to an orbital of another atom. The resulting ions are held together by an
electrostatic force of attraction between the charged ions.

Factors Affecting the Formation of Ions

 Ionization energy – A lower the ionization energy is more favourable
 Electron Affinity – The more negative the electron affinity, the more stable the
anion is
 Lattice Energy – The more negative the lattice energy, the more stable the
ionic compound formed.

Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonding occurs when a lattice of positive ions is surrounded by a sea of
electrons. The s orbitals overlap to form a large number of molecular orbitals, linking
the atoms together. The electrons become delocalized from the parent atom and
move freely within the molecular orbitals.

Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonds are formed when there is an overlap of orbitals. There are two types
of covalent bond: i. Sigma Bonds (σ)
ii Pi bonds (π)
A sigma bond is the result of end to end orbitals forming a molecular orbital. A single
bond can be formed by i. The overlap of two s orbitals
ii. The overlap of two p orbitals end to end
iii. The overlap an s and p orbital
Each orbital supplies one electron to the bond.
Pi Bond
A pi bond is formed from the side to side overlap of two p orbitals. Pi bonds results in
the formation of double bonds.

Dative Covalent Bonding (Coordinate Bonding)

A co-ordinate bond is a covalent bond in which both electrons come from the same
atom. One example of this is the reaction between ammonium and boron trifluoride.
Boron has an empty orbital in BF3 and is said to be electron deficient. Nitrogen has a
lone pair of electrons which can be used to overcome this deficiency.