A4 Applied Fluid Mechanics (8 lectures)

POTENTIAL FLOW, MT 2016 (Prof L. He)

4 Lectures on Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals

 2 lectures on ‘Potential Flow’ (He)
- Bulk ‘Inviscid’ Flow.

 2 lectures on ‘Boundary Layer’ (Povey)

- Near-wall Viscous Flow.

P- V+

P+
V-

Potential Flow 1-1

A4 Applied Fluid Mechanics

Lecture 1: Introduction to potential flow theory

Thoughts (an anonymous don…)

We evolved in one fluid and now live
immersed in another.
Every breath we take and every step we make
involves fluid motion.
How can we describe Fluid Motion
mathematically?
This short course is an answer (or part of it )
to this question. Brighton coast, south of Dunedin, NZ - Denis Wilford

Potential Flow 1-2

1
 A4 Applied Fluid Mechanics
Lecture 1: Introduction to potential flow theory

General Equations Governing Fluid Motion (Conservation Laws):

 
   v  0 -Mass (Continuity)
t

v  
(  v  v)  p     -Momentum (‘Navier-Stokes’)
t

 e vi h  q  ( v jij )

     i  -Energy
 t x i  x i x i

Potential Flow 1-3

A4 Applied Fluid Mechanics

Lecture 1: Introduction to potential flow theory

Turbulence – one of the fundamental consequences of flow Nonlinearity

A Turbulent Jet

"Turbulence is the most important unsolved problem of classical physics"

Richard Feynman, Nobel Prize in Physics,1965

Then, how did these happen ?

1903 (Wright Brothers) 2005 (A380) Potential Flow 1-4

2
 A4 Applied Fluid Mechanics
Lecture 1: Introduction to potential flow theory

So, a first set of take-home messages:

• General equations that govern fluid motion are “unsolvable”

• We (society) need solutions

• We (engineers) need to provide solutions (even appriximate)

• Therefore, we need to be smart and find ways around this

Potential Flow 1-5

Starting Point: consider more closely relevant fluid parameter(s)

(Velocity? Pressure? Temperature? Density? Viscosity ? …)

Lift

Moment

- Key is PRESSURE force/distribution

Potential Flow 1-6

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 Effects of Viscosity

• confined to small region near solid surface

Region without
viscosity effect
V
Region with
viscosity effect

aerofoil

• For streamlined bodies, viscous (friction) effects do not strongly affect

surface pressure distributions (e.g. Lift/Drag ~50 for well designed aerofoils)

 viscous effects may be neglected if we look at pressure forces

Potential Flow 1-7

POTENTIAL FLOW: INTRODUCTION

Books: Massey, B.S. (1998) Mechanics of Fluids, 7th Edition, Chapter 9
Sabersky & Acosta. Fluid flow Macmillan, Sect.6 Elements of Potential flow
Douglas, Gasoirek & Swaffield. Fluid Mechanics. Chapters 7 & 5.
In these next one and a half lectures we are going to see that it is possible to
describe mathematically fluid flows in two dimensions.
However there is a Public Health warning (Basic Assumptions):
1. Potential flow theory only holds for Inviscid (i.e. non-viscous) flows.
2. Potential flow theory only holds for constant density flows. This implies that the flows are
relatively low speed or incompressible.
In your study of fluids in motion, you have looked at the continuity equation, at momentum and
also at the Euler equation of motion which leads to Bernoulli's equation. It is time now to
group them and thus reinforce awareness of a fundamental distinction.
Kinematic equations Dynamic Equations
Continuity Momentum
Euler
Vorticity Bernoulli
Relate shape and movement Relate movement and force

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Example: Flow in a contracting duct.

Kinematic: If the area of a duct is reduced, continuity tells us the flow speed is increased.
Dynamic: a) If the flow speed is increased, Bernoulli tells us the static pressure is reduced.
b) Momentum tells us that there is a net force on the pipe internal surfaces.

Usually we can solve the kinematic problem first,

then consider the dynamics afterwards.

Potential flow theory is purely Kinematic.

It is concerned with the way flows are guided by the
boundaries of their space.

Exercise.
Try sketching what you think the
streamlines in this duct should look
like when still air from a large space is
drawn into the duct shown.

Potential Flow 1-9

GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR 2-DIMENSIONAL

POTENTIAL FLOW - 1
Analysis of the flow into the shaded elemental control
v
volume for two dimensional and incompressible flow v dy
y
gives two equations. u
u dy
y v
By considering the flow per unit depth into and out of v dx
x
this control volume, we obtain :
u
u dx
x
 u   v 
u  dx dy  udy    v  dy dx  vdx  0
 x   y 

which leads to
u v
 0
x y

This is the continuity equation for two-dimensional incompressible flow

Potential Flow 1-10

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 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR 2-DIMENSIONAL
POTENTIAL FLOW - 2
Next we consider the circulation, defined as the
v
integral around any closed path of the component of v dy
y
velocity locally tangential to that path. For the u
u dy
elemental control volume shown (per unit depth): y v
v dx
x
 v   u 
d  udx   v  dx dy   u  dy dx  vdy u
 x   y  u dx
x
 v u 
   dxdy   dxdy.
 x y 

 is the vorticity. When d =  = 0, the flow is irrotational. The equation for two dimensional irrotational
flow is then:
v u Also: d

ζ   0. dxdy
x y
(i.e. Vorticity = Circulation per unit area )
Why no vorticity?
1. Many flows start with a uniform stream.
2. A uniform stream is irrotational
3. Kelvin’s theorem states that vorticity cannot be created (or destroyed) without the action of viscous
shear stresses.
Potential Flow 1-11

Objectives of Potential Flow Theory

Potential flow theory is concerned with finding solutions to the continuity under the
assumption of zero vorticity (irrotational flow), subject to specified boundary conditions.

Aim: to find a distribution of velocity components u and v in x-y space which

(a) satisfies the continuity equation at every spatial point and

(b) is constrained to flow along, but not across, any solid wall boundaries.

Challenge: the continuity eq. can not be solved directly

Route: Replace u and v with partial derivatives of a single variable

Potential Flow 1-12

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 Velocity Potential 
 
Define u and v  .
x y
u v  2  2
Substitute into the continuity   0 to give   0.
2
x y x y 2

Thus the velocity potential satisfies Laplace’s equation, an important second order
partial differential equation which you will study later this year.

u v  2  2
Substitute into zero vorticity equation   0 to give  0 always.
y x y x x y

Thus the velocity potential always satisfies the zero vorticity (irrotational) condition.

Warning: sign conventions

Many texts (e. g. HLT, Massey) reverse the sign in the definition of  to give
 
u and v   .
x y
As long as you are internally consistent in the definition you use, you will be fine.

[Hint: To convert from one convention to another, simply replace  by - in all equations]
Potential Flow 1-13

Stream function 
 
Define u and v   .
y x

u v  2  2
Substitute into the continuity   to give   0 always.
x y xy yx

Thus the stream function always satisfies the continuity equation.

u v  2  2
Substitute into the zero vorticity equation   0 to give   0.
y x y 2 x 2

Thus the stream function satisfies Laplace’s equation. ( 2  0)

( measure of the fluid flowing across any curve between two points)

Warning: sign conventions

Many texts (e. g. HLT, Massey) reverse the sign in the definition of  to give
 
u and v  .
y x
Again, as long as you are internally consistent in the definition you use, you will be fine.

[Hint: To convert from one convention to another, simply replace  by - in all equations]
Potential Flow 1-14

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 A Potential Flow Toolbox
Solving Laplace’s equation to find a flow-field
- By using either  or  as a replacement variable, we can eliminate the velocity components u and v
and end up with Laplace's equation.

- The problem now is how to solve Laplace's equation to find  or  as a function of position in x-y space
within any given set of boundaries.
When we have a solution for  or  , we can simply use the definitions above (with whatever sign
convention we have chosen) to reinterpret the flow field in terms of velocity components u and v.

- We could, of course use computer programs that solve Laplace's equation numerically, but we need to
understand what is going on before these can be used safely.
There are two ways to approach analytical solutions.
The dumb way is to do lots of mindless algebra every time.
The smart way is to use the algebra once and for all to establish a set of simple physical ideas
– a Potential Flow toolbox - which will enable us to find solutions with minimum effort.
The following SIX theorems should be thoroughly understood and memorised. Examples
showing how to use them will be given at the end of this lecture and in Lecture 2.

Potential Flow 1-15

Potential Flow Toolbox Theorems

Theorem 1: Addition of  or 
Solutions can be combined by adding values of  or  at every point.

Proof (using  but it is the same for  )

 2 1  2 1  2 2  2 2
If  1 satisfies  2 0 and  2 satisfies  0
y 2 x y 2 x 2
 2  1   2   2  1   2 
then  1   2  satisfies   0.
y 2 x 2

So, if we know two potential flow solutions, then a third solution may be created by numerically adding
the stream function (or velocity potential) values at every point in x-y space.

Thus we can build up complex potential fields by superimposing simpler potential fields.

Potential Flow 1-16

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 Theorem 2: Addition of velocities

Adding  or  as scalars is equivalent to Vector Addition of velocities.

Proof (using  but we could prove it equally well using )

 1  1  2  2
If u1  , v1   and u2  , v2  
y x y x
Then for    1   2 ,
  1  2    1  2 
u  u1  u2 and v  v1  v2 .
y x

If we know two potential solutions, including their velocity fields, then the velocity field for a third solution
(of the sum of the two potentials) may be found directly by adding velocity components respectively at
every point in x-y space.

Thus we can build up complex velocity fields by superimposing simpler fields of velocity components.

Potential Flow 1-17

Theorem 3: Flow rate

The difference in  between any two points is equal to the volume flow rate per unit depth
crossing any line between those points.

Proof
 
Consider the perfect differential d  dx  dy .
x y
 
Substituting  v and u ,
x y
we get d  vdx  udy .

Examining the diagram, we recognise that the r.h.s.terms describe

the flow contributions across the straight boundaries of the element.

By continuity these add up to the total flow across any line between
the two marked points.

Integrating d between two points A and B in a flow gives the

volume flow rate per unit depth =   


Fluid flow
(note the direction of flow for our sign convention)

Potential Flow 1-18

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 Theorem 4: Lines of constant 
Lines of constant  are parallel to the flow

Proof

Consider again d  vdx  udy.

Now set d  0.
dy v
Then  .
dx u

Clearly lines of constant  are parallel to the flow direction given by

(u, v). They are streamlines.

Corollary: No flow crosses a streamline. 

Streamlines at different
Any streamline may be regarded as a solid values of 
boundary to the flow on either side of it.


 Simple solid boundary condition (  const

Potential Flow 1-19

Theorem 5: Lines of constant 

Theorem 5
Lines of constant  (Equipotentials) are normal to the flow

Proof (Same as theorem 4 but using perfect differential for  ).

 
Consider the perfect differential d  dx  dy .
x y
 
Substituting u and v ,
x y
we get d  udx  vdy .
Lines of constant  have d  0 , which gives :
dy u
 .
dx v
 
Clearly these lines of constant  are at 
right angles to the lines of constant  in 
Theorem 4 since
Streamlines

 dy   dy   v  u  
          1.
 dx  constant  dx  constant  u  v 

Potential Flow 1-20

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 Theorem 6: Streamlines & Equipotentials - square mesh

Streamlines and equipotentials with equal infinitesimal intervals form a mesh of squares.

Proof  
Note that  u
x y
 
and   v.
y x

Also by Theorems 4 and 5, they are everywhere

mutually perpendicular.

So streamlines and equipotentials of the same interval have the same spacing in orthogonal directions.
This property is the basis of an approximate flow-sketching solution method (examples to follow)

Potential Flow 1-21

Approximate Solution of Laplace Equation

by Flow-net Sketching

Try sketching the pattern of streamlines and equipotentials for the two flows below.

Build your picture by trial-and error using a soft pencil and a good rubber.

In each case extend the pattern from the uniform flow at the l.h. end remembering:

1. The equipotentials must meet all boundaries at right angles.

2. The streamlines and equipotentials must form (approximately) a pattern of
squares at every point, although these may be rotated and magnified or reduced
in size.
3. In both exercises, you will see that there is a plane of symmetry.

Potential Flow 1-22

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 Flow –Net sketching example 1

2.5

1.5

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Potential Flow 1-23

Flow –Net sketching example 2

Potential Flow 1-24

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 Summary of Potential Flow Toolbox

To encourage physical thinking rather than mindless algebra, a Potential Flow Toolbox was assembled by
proving the following set of simple theorems.
Six Theorems or Tools
1 Solutions can be combined by adding values of  or  at every point.
2 Adding  or  as scalars is equivalent to vector addition of velocities.
3 The difference in  between any two points is equal to the volume flow rate per unit
depth crossing any line between those points.
4 Lines of constant  (Streamlines) are parallel to the flow. Any streamline may be regarded as a solid
boundary to the flow on either side of it.
5 Lines of constant  are normal to the flow (Equipotentials).
6 Streamlines and equipotentials with equal infinitesimal intervals form a mesh of squares.

We now proceed to develop a solution procedure which makes use of the Toolbox
with minimal mathematical effort.

End of Lecture 1 Potential Flow 1-25

RECAP – Potential Flow Basics

Potential Flow Theory is the art of solving

u v u v
continuity   0 simultan eously wit h zero - vorticity  0
x y y x
 2  2
which can be reduced to Laplace' s equation   0,
2
y x 2
  where
by substit uting either u and v
x y  is the velocity potential;
 
or u and v .  is the stream function.
y x

Potential Flow 1-26

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 Flow –Net sketching example 1

2.5
5 7 4
2 -9 -7 -5
3
1.5 8
-1 10
2 0 1
-2 2
1 -3 3
1
0.5
4
-10
0 0
0

-0.5 -1

0
-1 -2
9
-1.5
-3
-6 -4
-8
-2 6
-4 -3 -2 -1 4
0 1 2 3
-2.5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Potential Flow 1-27

Flow –Net sketching example 2

-19
-17
-18

-15
-16
-13
-14
-11
-12
-9

-10
-7
-8
-5

-6 -4

-2
-3 3

2 0
2
1 4
-1 6 8 10 12 14
16 18

1 3 5 7
9 11 13 15 17
19

(given pressure and velocity at inlet  velocity and pressure distributions!)

Potential Flow 1-28

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