VII.

The Respiratory System

Introduction

Oxygen is the most essential component to sustain life. Human body requires oxygen to live.
This is the prime role of the respiratory system. As discussed on the previous topics, oxygen is
further delivered or transported throughout the body by the cardiovascular system. Respiratory
system emphasizes on the oxygen uptake and unloading of carbon dioxide or waste.

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Name the structures and organs forming the respiratory passageway.
2. Describe the functions of the respiratory organs.
3. Explain the process of gas exchange in the lungs and tissues.
4. Discuss how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood.

Try This!

Activity 1. Answer the given questions based on your own understanding.

Sit back on a chair in an upright position. Using your two hands, place your hands on your chest.
Feel the rise and fall of your chest as you breathe normally. Feel the movement of your rib cage
as you inhale and exhale.

Describe the movement of your chest during inhalation and exhalation. When inhaling the chest
and abdomen contract (tighten). When you exhale, the muscles relax and the lungs deflate on their
own.
What can you say about the movement of your abdomen during inhalation and exhalation?
When we breathe in the diaphragm tightens, flattens and moves down, sucking air into the lungs.
As the diaphragm moves down, it pushes the abdominal contents down, which forces the
abdominal wall out. When we breathe out the diaphragm relaxes, air passes out of the lungs and the
abdominal wall flattens.

You did great in answering Activity 1. Congratulations!

Think Ahead!
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Activity 1 helps you to understand the concepts on Mechanism of Breathing. The movement of
air into and out of the lungs is commonly known as breathing. Breathing, pulmonary ventilation
or respiration are synonymous in terms of air entry and out of the lungs achieving gas exchanges.
You have just discovered how your breathing is processed. The rise and fall of your chest during
inhalation and exhalation is influenced by the changes in pressure in your lungs.

To learn more, do the next activity.

Try This!

Activity 2. Identifying structures of Upper and Lower Respiratory Tract.

List the major structures of the Upper and Lower Respiratory Tract. Fill-out your answers
on the table below.
Upper Respiratory Tract Lower Respiratory Tract
Nose Trachea
Pharynx Lungs
Larynx Bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveoli
Alveolar Ducts
Alveolar Sacs

To know more about the structures, do the next activity.

Describe the structures and functions of respiratory system.

What is/are the major function(s) of each of the following structures? Describe briefly
each structure. Fill-out your answer on the space provided.

Pharynx The pharynx chamber serves both respiratory and digestive

functions. It is cone-shaped passageway leading from the oral
and nasal cavities in the head to the esophagus and larynx.

Larynx Larynx, also called voice box, a hollow, tubular structure

connected to the top of the windpipe (trachea); air passes

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through the larynx on its way to the lungs. The larynx also
produces vocal sounds and prevents the passage of food and
other foreign particles into the lower respiratory tracts.

Trachea The trachea serves as passage for air, moistens and warms it
while it passes into the lungs, and protects the respiratory
surface from an accumulation of foreign particles. The
trachea is lined with a moist mucous-membrane layer
composed of cells containing small hairlike projections called
cilia.

Lungs The main function of the lungs is the process of gas exchange
called respiration. The lungs are a pair of spongy, air-filled
organs located on either side of the chest

Alveoli The alveoli are where the lungs and the blood exchange
oxygen and carbon dioxide during the process of breathing in
and breathing out. The alveoli are tiny air sacs at the end of
the bronchioles.

Congratulations for completing Activity 2!

Think Ahead!

Activity 1 and 2 helps you to understand about the structures and functions of the two
subdivisions of the respiratory system – the upper and the lower respiratory tracts. Upper
respiratory tract serves as the entry of air or passageways. Air enters through the nose, pharynx
and larynx respectively.

The structures of the lower respiratory tract include the trachea, bronchi, lungs,
bronchioles, alveoli and, alveoli ducts and sacs (Fig. 75). Considering the upper respiratory tract
mainly serves as a passageway of air, loading of oxygen and unloading of carbon dioxide occurs
in the lower respiratory tract. The structures include are the trachea, bronchi, lungs, bronchioles,
alveoli and, alveoli ducts and sacs.

Compare your answers on the Read and Ponder section. Did you get it correct?

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Read and Ponder

During breathing, oxygen is inhaled and carbon dioxide is exhaled. The process of transporting
oxygen gas into blood plasma is one of the major roles of the respiratory organs. The structures
of the respiratory tracts are designed to enable oxygen to enter the body following the
passageways for proper intake of oxygen; complimentary, expelling carbon dioxide as waste.

The Upper Respiratory Tract

▪ Nose – externally, the nose has visible entry port called the nares or nostrils. Internally,
within the nasal cavity functions to filter or trap foreign substances like dirt, dust and
other microorganisms carried by the inhaled air. Structure of nasal cavity also helps to
warm air entering the tract as it moistens by a sticky mucous produced by its mucosa.

▪ Pharynx – it serves as a passageway for both food and air. It measures about 5 inches
long connected from the nasal cavity. This muscular passageway has three (3) regions
called the nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx. Air passes from the nasal
cavity going to the nsaopharynx and further flows through the oropharynx and
laryngopharynx. When food is ingested, from the mouth it enters the oropharynx and
laryngopharnyx; however, food is directed into the esophagus due to the function of
epiglottis.

▪ Larynx – it is commonly known as the voice box. This structure serves an essential
function on speech, this is due to the folds of the mucus membrane called vocal folds or
vocal cords.It is located inferiorly to the pharynx and made of rigid hyaline cartilages.
From the pharynx, air enters to this passageway going to the lower repsiratory tract.
During eating, when food is swallowed, epiglottis covers the larynx, leading the food
posteriorly to enter the esophagus. The movement on your throat you feel during
swallowing is the closing of your larynx which is pulled upward. This mechanism
prevents food and other foreign objects entering the lower respiratory tract that may
cause impaired breathing.

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Figure 75. Anatomy of the upper respiratory tract

The Lower Respiratory Tract

▪ Trachea – air passing through the larynx will reach the windpipe or trachea. It measures
about 4 inches in length located midline of the chest. Like the larynx, trachea is also made
of hyaline cartilages in C-shaped rings. Tracheal inner membrane is lined with ciliated
mucosa. The role of the cilia is to help eliminate foreign bodies like dust particles to
move out away from the lungs. This mechanism involves goblet cells in the tracheal
mucosa that produced mucus, which eventually can be expelled out from the throat by
swallowing or spitting.

▪ Bronchi – two passageways branched out from the inferior part of the trachea – right
main bronchus and the left main bronchus. Bronchi serve as a passageway enrouting to
the lungs. The right bronchus is wider and shorter comparing to the left (Fig 76).

▪ Lungs - these respiratory organs are divided into two – the right and left lung. Right
lung has three lobes and left lung has two lobes. Lungs are made up of air spaces, it is
spongy weighing about 2.5 pounds. The lungs fill large area in the thoracic cavity. The
thoracic cavity houses other organs like the heart, great blood vessels and other organs
within the thorax. In between the lungs and the thoracic cavity is a space called pleural
space. Pleural membranes produce a serous fluid called pleural fluid. This fluid supports
the lungs against friction during breathing. Each lung is lined with a covering called
visceral pleura and thoracic cavity is lined with parietal pleura. The superior part or the
apex of each lung is situated under the clavicle. The inferior portion which is resting on
the diaphragm is called the base (Fig. 77).

▪ Bronchioles – within the lungs, each bronchus is branching out to smallest passageways
called bronchioles. Ending the branches to respiratory bronchioles.

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▪ Alveoli, Alveolar Ducts and Alveolar Sacs – these structures are considered as the
respiratory zone (Fig. 78), to include the respiratory bronchioles which are all located
within the lungs. Respiratory zone refers to a site of gas exchange. Small cavities or air
sacs are called the alveoli. The alveolar duct and sacs are networked together serving as
sites of gas exchange. The outer surface of the alveoli is lined with pulmonary capillaries.
In this particular site is the respiratory membrane where alveolar and capillary
membranes linked together. Carbon dioxide leaves the blood and enter the alveoli,
oxygen from the alveoli enters the capillary blood – this process takes place within the
respiratory membrane (Fig.5). The alveoli have a role in fighting against presence of
pathogens in the lungs. Alveolar macrophages work on the defenses against carbon
particles, bacteria and other invading pathogens.

Figure 76. Structures of respiratory organs Figure 77. Organs in the thoracic cavity

Figure 78. Structures of respiratory zone

Figure 79.Respiratorymembrane

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Mechanism of Breathing

Breathing is influenced by the volume changes in the thoracic cavity. Specifically, during
inhalation or inspiration, air flows into the lungs and air flows out from the lungs during
exhalation or expiration. These volume changes are dependent on the pressure changes.
Atmospheric pressure and intrapulmonary or intra-alveolar pressure influence the pulmonary
ventilation. As general rule, intrapulmonary pressure is always equal to the atmospheric pressure.
Thus, changes in volume will lead to changes in pressure.

▪ Inspiration – air flows into the lungs. During inspiration the size of thoracic cavity
increases, due to the contraction of external intercostal muscles and diaphragm
(Fig. 80). When this happens, the intrapulmonary volume increases which makes
intrapulmonary pressure decreased. Making intrapulmonary pressure lower than
atmospheric pressure.

▪ Expiration – air flows out from the lungs. When air moves out from the lungs, external
intercostal muscles and diaphragm relax, returning the thoracic cavity into its resting size
(Fig.81). During exhalation, volume of thoracic cavity decreases leads to increase in
intrapulmonary pressure. At this point, intrapulmonary pressure is greater than the
atmospheric pressure causing the air to leave the lungs.

Figure 80. Changes in thoracic cavity Figure 81. Changes in thoracic cavity
during inspiration during expiration

Breathing is influenced by neural, physical, chemical, emotional factors. Respiratory muscles are
regulated by neural centers, medulla and pons which is communicated with the intercostal and
phrenic nerves. Physical activities such as, exercise, coughing or talking can also affect the
breathing pattern or rate. Consciously, breathing can also be controlled, like holding of breaths.
Extreme emotional feelings likely affect breathing, for example, a person who is anxious or
scared may experience fast breathing. The increase level of carbon dioxide changes the blood pH

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level, an example of chemical factor affecting respiratory rate and depth. Decrease of blood pH
level will stimulate neural centers to compensate the imbalance.

Lung Volume and Capacity

The amount of air that flows in and out of the lungs can be measured based on volumes.
Respiratory volumes include the different measurements of the amount of air in the lungs
during breathing. Respiratory volumes depend on person’s age, weight, sex and physical
conditions. The values of each volumes can be measured using a spirometer.

▪ Tidal volume (TV) – refers to the amount of air moves in and out of the lungs during
quiet breathing. It is about 500 mL of air in every breathing cycle.
▪ Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) – is the amount of air taken forcibly in deep
inhalation above the tidal volume. It is about 3,100 mL of air.
▪ Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) – refers to the amount of air forcefully exhaled
beyond tidal expiration measuring about 1,200 mL of air.
▪ Residual Volume – refers to the amount of air remained in the lungs that cannot be
expelled. It is essential for gas exchange by keeping the alveoli inflated.
▪ Vital Capacity – is the sum of the TV, IRV and ERV or the total amount of
exchangeable air.
▪ Dead Space Volume – air that remains on the passageways that does not reach the
respiratory zone. The amount of this air is about 150 mL.

Gas Transport

The pick-up of oxygen and unloading of carbon dioxide takes place in the respiratory zone
and in the tissue cells. The gas exchanges occurring between the alveoli and pulmonary
capillaries is called External Respiration or the pulmonary gas exchange (Fig. 82). In systemic
circulation, gas exchange between blood and tissue cells is known as the Internal respiration or
the systemic capillary gas exchange (Fig. 83).

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Figure 82. External respiration Figure 83. Internal respiration

In external respiration, oxygen from the alveoli is picked up by RBCs in pulmonary
capillaries, attaching to the hemoglobin, forming oxyhemoglobin. This is also due to pressure
gradient where alveoli contain high concentration of oxygen than the blood capillaries. Similarly,
concentration of carbon dioxide in pulmonary capillaries is higher than on the alveoli. Carbon
dioxide in plasma which is enzymatically converted to bicarbonate ions in RBCs will diffuse
from the blood into the alveoli to expel through exhalation.
During internal respiration, concentration of carbon dioxide in plasma is high within the
tissue cells than the blood. Carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate ions will move into the
blood entering the systemic circulation flowing back to the heart to be further transported to the
lungs for discharging. Oxygen in the blood which is binded to hemoglobin easily diffuse to tissue
cells.
For additional information about concepts of respiratory system, you may read any
textbook or references on Human Anatomy and Physiology. You may also go to
https://www.visiblebody.com/learn/respiratory/5-functions-of-respiratory-system.

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See if you can do this!

You have learned the concepts of structures and functions of respiratory system. Take a
review by answering the following exercises.

1. This structure extends from the larynx to the main bronchi. It is also known as the windpipe.
What structure is this? The trachea

2. What is serous fluid that allows the lungs to glide easily over the thorax? Pleural fluid

3. What process refers to when air moves into the lungs until intrapulmonary pressure equals
atmospheric pressure? Inspiration

4. Describe the process of expiration or exhalation.

When the diaphragm contracts, it moves down towards the abdomen. This movement of the
muscles causes the lungs to expand and fill with air, like a bellows (inhalation).
5. Normal breathing rate is also known as eupnea. What is the normal quiet respiration rate?
The typical respiratory rate for a healthy adult at rest is 12–18 breaths per minute.

6. What region of the pharynx that serves only respiratory function? Nasopharynx

7. Explain the correct flow of air through respiratory structures during inspiration?
Air travels down the pharynx and larynx, through the trachea, and into the lungs. In the lungs,
air passes through the branching bronchi, reaching the respiratory bronchioles. The respiratory
bronchioles open up into the alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli.

8. The nurse auscultates the breath sounds of a 30-year old client who is having shortness of
breath.
The nurse is aware that the apex of the lung is located on near the clavicle (superior portion)

9. A 40-year old male client with a Tidal Volume of 500 mL, his forceful exhalation measures
1,100 mL of air and forceful deep inhalation measures 3,000 mL. What is the vital capacity of
the client? 4,600 ml

10. Explain the differences between External and Internal Respiration?

External respiration refers to the gas exchange across the respiratory membrane of lungs.
Internal Respiration: Oxygen diffuses out from the blood into tissue during internal
respiration.

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Congratulations for a job well done!!

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