Macronutrients in Nutrition

and Lifestyle Coaching Part 1

Presentation 2:
The Structure and Functions of
Carbohydrates
Purpose of this Presentation
§  Briefly introduce the nutrients and the different sub-
classes
§  Briefly discuss the structural similarities and
primary role of the macronutrients
§  Provide a detailed look at the structure of different
classifications of carbohydrates
§  Monosaccharides
§  Disaccharides
§  Oligosacchrides
§  Polysaccharides
§  Fibre
§  Provide an outline of the primary functions of
carbohydrates as a whole and the specific functions
of each classification
Why you need to Understand the Categories,
Structure and Functions of the Macronutrients

§  We are about to hit

some science!!
§  Why do you need to
understand the
basic underlying
biochemistry of
nutrients?
§  How will this benefit
you as a Nutrition
and Lifestyle
Coach?
Nutrients
What is a Nutrient?

§  Have you ever considered what a

nutrient actually is?
§  It is a chemical that an organism
needs to live and grow or a
substance used in an organism's
metabolism which must be taken in
from its environment
Essential Nutrients
§  In terms of nutrients, the term ‘essential’
means:

§  A nutrient that cannot be made in the body

It does not mean that it is necessarily more

important than other nutrients

§  A deficiency of intake through the diet leads to

specific deficiency symptoms and ultimately to
death
§  These deficiency symptoms can be halted and
reversed by dietary or supplementary intake of
the nutrient
Non-essential Nutrients

§  This term does not mean they are

not important!
§  They may be incredibly important

§  However, we can synthesise them

in the human body
Therefore – in theory – we do not
need to take them in through diet
Why do we say ‘in theory’?
Functions of Nutrients
§  They are fundamental to ensuring proper and
efficient functioning of the body
§  As a whole
§  All individual organs and systems
§  Building and repair of tissues
§  Provision of heat and energy
§  Regulation of body processes

§  The effects of nutrients are dose-dependent

§  It is vital to understand how much of each
nutrient we should be consuming in order to
achieve optimum health and prevent chronic
disease
Classification of Nutrients

§  Macronutrients
§  Nutrients needed in large quantities
§  Micronutrients
§  Required in only small quantities
§  These are no less important and are
often considered to supply the ‘quality’
to a diet
The Subclasses of Macronutrients
and Micronutrients
§  Macronutrients
§  Carbohydrates
§  Proteins
§  Lipids (fats and oils)

§  Micronutrients
§  Vitamins
§  Minerals
§  Phytonutrients
The Macronutrients
Macronutrients
§  The class of nutrients that humans need to
consume in the largest quantities
§  The prefix makro, from Ancient Greek, means big
or large
§  These provide bulk energy to our bodies
§  Required for:
§  Providing calories – energy – to the body
§  Growth
§  Metabolism
§  Many other body functions
§  Covered later in this unit
§  All the macronutrients are essential for life,
though in different amounts
The Classifications of Macronutrients

§  Carbohydrates
§  Saccharides
§  Proteins
§  Fats
§  Lipids
The Structure of Macronutrients

§  All the macronutrients are made up

of the same basic elements:
§  Oxygen
Carbon forms the backbone
§  Carbon of the structure of these
molecules
§  Hydrogen
§  They are all ‘organic’ compounds
§  As they all contain carbon
Why Structure is Important
§  How the elements on the previous slide are bonded and the
additional elements attached to them directly impact their
functions within the body

§  The structural similarities are very useful in terms of their

primary role as energy suppliers

They are able to share some of the same metabolic pathways where they
can be broken down for energy or built back up into usable units in the
body (protein is built into muscle and fat is built into cell membranes etc).
This makes the process of producing energy and structures from the
macronutrients more efficient

§  Their structural differences give them their more specialised

functions in the body…more about this later!
Production of ATP

§  All macronutrients are involved in the production of ATP (adenosine tri-
phosphate) – the form in which energy is stored and used in the body
Macronutrient Building Blocks

§  Each macronutrient is made up of

smaller building blocks:
Macronutrient Building Blocks

§  These building blocks are usually

bonded together in the form of long
chains or organised bundles
depending on their function
§  Remember: the structure of each is
very important to its uses in the
body – as you will see as we move
through this presentation
The Chemical Structure and
Biological Functions of the
Individual Macronutrients
Carbohydrates: The Basics
§  They are the most abundant organic
compound in nature
§  They are scientifically known as ‘saccharides’
§  They contain the following elements in a
1:2:1 ratio: This is why many
§  Carbon plant-based foods
§  Hydrogen are considered
§  Oxygen carbohydrate
§  They are often abbreviated to CHO foods
§  Due to the elements they contain

§  They make up 50-80% of the dry substance

of plants
ccb
The Basic Roles of Different Types of
Carbohydrate within the Human Body

§  Energy storage

§  Providing structure
§  Food for beneficial bacteria in the gut
§  Bulk out stools
§  Support the immune, digestive and
cardiovascular systems
§  Help balance blood sugar
§  Important component on cell
membranes with specialized functions
Carbohydrate Classifications

§  Saccharides are classified according to

their structure:
§ Free sugars – 1-2 sugars
§  Monosaccharides - “one sugar”
§  Disaccharides - “two sugars”
§  Sugar alcohols – monosaccharides or
disaccharides with a specific chemical
group attached to them
§ Oligosacchrides – approx 3-20 sugars
§ Polysaccharides – 20+ sugars
§ Other substances derived from CHOs
The Structure and Functions
of Different Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate Structure

A monosaccharide

A disaccharide

Part of a
polysaccharide
Free Sugars

Monosaccharides and
Disaccharides
Monosaccharides
§  Monosaccharides are §  Glucose
the building blocks
from which all bigger
carbohydrates are
made
§  There are a number
of different
monosaccharides

§  They require basically

no digestion before Why is this important?
entering the blood What does this mean
stream when we eat
monosaccharides?
Common Monosaccharides
§  Glucose
§  The main fuel molecule for most living things
§  Found in most plants
§  Is a building block for starch, cellulose, cane
sugar (sucrose), milk sugar (lactose) and malt
sugar (maltose)
§  Other molecules are converted to glucose
before being used for energy
§  Vitamin C is derived from glucose
§  Often called dextrose in the food industry and
on food labels
Common Monosaccharides
§  Fructose
§  Also often known as
fruit sugar
§  Found in traces in most
plants
§  At highest levels in a lot
of fruits
§  A building block for
cane sugar (sucrose)
§  But sweeter in taste
§  Can be changed to
glucose in the liver or in
the small intestine for a
quick source of energy
Prebiotics are a key tool you will be using as an
NLC as we want to nourish and protect the
beneficial bacteria in the bowel. This will be
covered in detail later in the course
§  Xylose
§  The basis of the sugar
alcohol xylitol
§  Used widely in food processing
and the health food industry
as a natural sweetener
§  Not linked to tooth decay and
has other health benefits
§  To be discussed later
§  Naturally occurring in some
fruits, veg and mushrooms
§  In food processing the major
source is wood fibre from
birch trees
§  Can induce diarrhoea if
ingested in large amounts or if
an individual is intolerant
§  The former is due to its action
as a prebiotic (food source
for bowel bacteria)
Disaccharides
§  Disaccharides are double sugars i.e. two monosaccharides
joined together
§  Most of the sweet things we eat are disaccharides:
§  Table sugar is sucrose: glucose joined to fructose

§  Plants use photosynthesis to make glucose, but convert it to

sucrose for ease of transport and storage

§  Sucrose is broken down into its component monosaccharides in

the digestive tract for absorption into the bloodstream

So the
carbohydrates we
Glucose Fructose consume from
natural sources are
often in the form of
sucrose
Sucrose
Common Disaccharides
§  Sucrose Most sugar added to foods
is in the form of sucrose
§  Table sugar is sucrose

§  Also found in sugar beet, maple syrup, molasses, sorghum and
pineapple
§  Composed of 1 molecule of fructose and 1 of glucose
§  It is broken down to these molecules for use as energy in the body
§  High consumption of sucrose has been implicated in a wide variety
of health problems. Common ones include:
§  Obesity
§  Tooth decay
§  Diabetes and blood sugar imbalances
§  Psychological and emotional issues
§  PMS
§  Chronic fatigue syndrome

§  Fact: Highest sugar consumption can be found in Brazil with

Russia, Mexico and the European Union following closely behind
Common Disaccharides
§  Lactose
§  The only sugar of animal origin
§  Found in breast milk
§  Is composed of 1 molecule of glucose and 1 of galactose
§  Is broken down by the enzyme lactase
§  This enzyme can be low or absent in some individuals – particularly
in certain ethnic groups including Latinos, Africans and Asians
§  Cow’s milk is high source of lactose, BUT breast milk
contains MORE
§  However breast milk also contains high levels of lactase so is easily
digested
§  This process is important for the development of the infant’s
nervous system
§  Most nerves are wrapped in a special coating called the myelin sheath
§  Galactose (1 of the monosaccharides in lactose) is a primary building
block for this sheath
§  The presence of lactase is why some infants cope much better with
breast milk than cow’s milk formula
§  The livers of infants do not have the capacity to make this enzyme
Common Disaccharides
§  Maltose
§  Made up of 2 glucose molecules
§  It is produced during the breakdown of starches
from many cereal grains
§  Maltose is present in beer, malted snacks and
some breakfast cereals
§  It is used as a sweetener in many biscuits and
crackers
§  Most individual’s maltose is easily broken down
into glucose molecules for a fast energy boost
§  Great if energy is required but this can easily lead to
excess energy (which must be stored as fat in the
body)!
Oligosaccharides

‘Several sugars’
Oligosaccharides
§  All oligosaccharides contain between 3 and 20 sugar units
§  They are much shorter than most polysaccharides
§  Found in a variety of foods, mostly of plant origin
§  Unique in the carbohydrate world due to their unique ability to support the
immune system
§  Many cannot be digested in the small intestine

§  When they reach the large intestine they serve as food for the beneficial
bacteria in the colon

This makes them VERY useful to NLCs! Do you know why at this
stage? If not don’t worry – this will be covered in the next few units!

§  The shorter chain oligosaccharides containing fructose are especially good at
this process
§  The presence of oligosaccharides in human breast milk is postulated as one
of the reasons for its health benefits
§  They are also the building blocks of some important carbohydrate
derivatives – as you will see later in this presentation
Polysaccharides

‘Many sugars’
Polysaccharides
§  The largest structures in the carbohydrate family
§  They are long chains of free sugars
§  Can contain anything from a few dozen to several
thousand sugar units
§  They commonly contain several hundred

§  They are often termed ‘complex carbohydrates’ as,

unlike free sugars, they usually undergo
significant digestion before they can be absorbed
into the blood stream
§  This is done using enzymes

Slow digestion/release into the

bloodstream or NO digestion/release
into the blood stream make these very
useful to NLCs – consider why.
Polysaccharides
§  There are two major classifications of polysaccharides
§  Starches
§  Non-starches
§  Both starches and non-starches are long chains of carbohydrates stuck
together in branches
§  The branches allow them to contain vast amounts of monosaccharides
§  They form large structures in both animals and plants (e.g. polysaccharides
such as starch and cellulose)
§  Again – this structural feature is very important to their functions as you will
see on the next few slides

!
Starch Polysaccharides
§  Subcategories So in a plant -
starch is its
stored energy
§  Starch – storage polysaccharide for plants supply.
§  Glycogen – storage polysaccharide for animals Energy =
calories
§  They are used as reserve fuel
§  There are several types of starch found in plant foods
§  Amylopectin is the most commonly found in plant foods,
particularly added starch, cereals, potatoes, thickeners
§  It is made entirely from 100s of glucose molecules
§  Amylose contains longer chains of glucose molecules
§  It is easily broken down by the enzyme amylase and is found in starch,
cereals, potatoes
§  Both these polysaccharides contain high levels of glucose
§  They can offer a great deal of energy if starchy plants are consumed in
the diet
Starch Polysaccharides

§  Glycogen has a similar structure to

amylopectin and amylase
§  It is the storage carbohydrate for
animals (that includes humans!)
§  Glucose consumed in the diet is built up
into glycogen for storage
§  Glycogen can be broken down to
release glucose or built up from
excess glucose and stored in the liver
and muscles
Storage of Starch Polysaccharides

§  Plants store considerable amounts of starch

§  Something like a potato is made up of 75%
starch
§  However the animal body can only store
limited amounts of carbohydrate in the liver
and muscles as glycogen
§  Because stored carbohydrates bind water
§  Water is another molecule and therefore takes up
more space
§  Therefore glycogen can be converted to fat
for more efficient energy storage
§  It takes up less space (as it cannot bind to
water) and is more energy dense
Consolidate your Learning
§  Consider what you have just learnt about
starch polysaccharides
§  Write a brief explanation in your own
words why consumption of high levels of
potatoes and bread could lead to weight
gain
§  Write this in language that the general
public would understand
§  Try testing this explanation out on friends/
family and see if they gain a better
understanding
§  Ask for feedback!
Non-Starch Polysaccharides (NSPs)

§  These
polysaccharides
are not structured
like the starches
§  The primary non-
starches are:
§  Celluloses
§  Hemicelluloses

§  When we talk

about ‘fibre’ we
are basically
talking about NSPs
This is an important but
easy to forget fact!
NSP and Dietary Fibre
§  Fibre is the indigestible/partly digestible part of plants
and is broadly defined as ‘non-digestable’ food
§  ‘Dietary fibre’ is a poorly defined term and includes a
range of different chemical components
§  With different effects on the body
§  Non-starch polysaccharides can be measured more
precisely than total dietary fibre
§  Nutritionists therefore use the term NSP (instead of fibre)
for the most easily measured and most precisely defined
form of non-digestible food

§  So when we are discussing dietary fibre on this course

we are MOSTLY discussing non-starch polysaccharides
unless specifically stated
The 2 Main Types of Dietary Fibre
§  Insoluble fibre §  Soluble fibre
§  Indigestible in the
human digestive tract
due to its tough
structure and lack of
enzymes required to
do so
§  Cellulose from plant
cell walls is main
source in human diet
§  + some hemicelluloses
§  Similar in structure to
cellulose
§  Found in plant cell
walls also
§  It is PARTIALLY
digestible for humans
§  Due to low pH in
digestive tract and
presence of bowel flora
§  It is broken down into
a gel like substance in
the digestive tract but
does not enter the
blood stream
§  Subcategories include
§  Some hemicelluloses
§  Most pectins
§  Mucilages
Resistant Starch
§  Some starch (naturally occurring and formed during
processing) is mostly enzyme resistant and therefore
termed "resistant starch”
§  It is considered ‘indigestible’ as it is only partially broken
down by stomach acid and is fermented by bowel flora

This is the fibre that is NOT an NSP. Research into resistant starch
is new…hence the current confusion over terms! The fermentation
by the bowel flora make it very interesting for NLCs as it is
basically another food source for those beneficial bowel flora.
The Importance of Insoluble
Fibre
§  Cellulose acts as a bulking agent in the stool
§  It is not broken down in the digestive tract so
increases stool mass
§  In some cases it also serves as a fuel for
beneficial bacteria living in the gut
§  Most vegetables and fruit contain a certain
amount of cellulose but plants with high
levels are not selected as foods
§  Animals such as cows and horses can
breakdown cellulose, although humans
cannot
§  See table provided in your additional reading
folder titled ‘Types of Fibre’
The Importance of Soluble Fibre

§  Some types of insoluble fibre are receiving a lot of

attention within the nutrition arena due to:
§  Their effects on the immune system
§  Their support for elimination processes
§  Their ability to help balance blood sugar
§  Their role in reducing cholesterol levels and supporting the
cardiovascular system
§  The gel formed as soluble fibre partially breaks down in
the digestive tract traps substances related to high
cholesterol
§  There is some evidence that soluble fibre may lessen
heart disease risks by reducing the absorption of
cholesterol into the bloodstream
§  It can also help maintain healthy bowel movements as
the gel aids the movement of the stool out of the bowel
§  See table provided in your additional reading folder titled ‘Types
of Fibre’
The Importance of Resistant
Starch
§  Resistant starch, while not traditionally
thought of as fibre, acts in a similar way
§  It is the part of starchy food (approximately
10 per cent) that resists normal digestion
§  It is believed to be important in bowel health
§  Bacteria in the large bowel ferment and change
the resistant starch into short-chain fatty acids,
which are important to bowel health and may
protect against cancer
§  These fatty acids are also absorbed into the
bloodstream and may play a role in lowering
blood cholesterol levels
Summary of How Fibre
Does its Job
§  The specific mechanisms by which fibre exerts its
effects
§  High water-binding capacity
§  Causing swelling of the stool in the digestive tract
§  In the stomach fibre delays emptying
§  The water-binding enlarges the particles so that they pass
the pyloric sphincter later
§  Fibre rich foods tend to need more chewing so
contribute to faster and more sustained feelings of
satiety
§  The binding of steroids leads to increased excretion of
bile acids and cholesterol
§  Glucose absorption is also delayed
§  Short chain fatty acids produced during fermentation
positively affect the composition of the bowel flora as
well as intestinal pH
A Word of Warning!
§  As with many other important nutrients the health benefits
also come with a few possible negative effects
§  High levels of fibre in the digestive tract can create an
indigestible matrix with an ability to bind other substances
to it
§  This can cause the binding of nutrients, such as minerals and fat-soluble
substances, to the matrix, which stops their absorption
§  However this is not a reason to avoid fibre as high fibre foods tend to
contain more minerals than low fibre foods, which means that even if
absorption is impaired, levels may still be higher than on a low fibre diet
§  High levels of insoluble fibre may also CAUSE constipation
§  As insoluble fibre cannot be penetrated by water and so can cause very
dry solid stools which are hard to pass
§  Increased gas and bloating
§  Due to the formation of gases like methane and CO2 resulting from
microbial breakdown of these fibres
Dietary Fibre

§  Please watch this video clip, which

can also be found in your media
folder on Moodle, on the benefits of
fibre:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=bcTNa3PBHWE
Video: Carbohydrate Structure
and Function
§  Please watch this video clip, which can also be found in
your media folder on Moodle, which summarises what
you have learnt so far about the basics of carbohydrate
structure and function:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_zm_DyD6FJ0
Consolidate Your Learning

§  Please complete the worksheet

‘Classification of Carbohydrates’
that can be found in your additional
reading folder on Moodle
§  This is not a formal unit activity but
is designed to support your learning
Consolidate Your Learning

§  Take out your worksheet on the

classification of carbohydrates
§  For each type of carbohydrate
included on the worksheet see if
you can remember:
§  Its key structural characteristics
§  Its key functions
Structure and Function: Points
to Take Home
§  ALL carbohydrates are made up of the
same few building blocks
§  What are these?
§  Yet they have many different roles in
nature and in the human body
§  Jot down as many different types of
carbohydrates and their key roles
§  See if you can make a note next to
each different carbohydrate how its
structure impacts its functions
References
§  Burton-Freeman B. (2000) Dietary fiber and energy
regulation. J Nutr; 130(2S Suppl):272S-5S, PMID: 15360
§  Davy BM and Melby CL. (2003) The effect of fiber-rich
carbohydrates on features of Syndrome X. J Am Diet
Assoc; 103(1):86-96
§  Fernandez ML. (2001) Soluble fiber and nondigestible
carbohydrate effects on plasma lipids and cardiovascular
risk. Curr Opin Lipidol; 12(1):35-40
§  Lupton, JR, Turner, ND. (1999) Potential protective
mechanisms of wheat bran fiber. Am J Clin Nutr;
59:1162S-5S
§  The American Diabetes Association (2004) Nutrition
principles and recommendations in diabetes-Position
Statement. Diabetes Care, Jan 2004