BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS

OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
1.INTRODUCTION
•In control systems, block diagrams are used to represent
system’s operation.
•These block diagrams consist of unidirectional, operational
blocks that represent the transfer functions of the variables of
interest.
•The Kirchhoff’s method and the Manson’s rule are the tools used
to simplify the blocks representing the processes of a system.
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
 Block diagrams are therefore a simple way of representing
the relationships between the inputs, disturbances and
outputs of linear systems in transfer function form.
 Complicated systems are represented by many blocks
connected together, each block representing a transfer
function of an individual part of the system.
 The connection of the blocks represents a structure of the
complex system and the mathematical relation within each
of the blocks.
 The transfer function represent the system mechanism.
 Thus the mathematical model, a transfer function and a
block diagram are three identical ways of expressing the
input-output information of a linear system.
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
2. THE CANONICAL FORM OF THE CONTROL SYSTEM
• In chapter 1, we deduced the expression for the transfer
function for a linear time invariant system from its
differential equations and the Laplace transforms.
• Generally, the transfer function G(s) is in the form:
y ( s) b0 s m  b1s m1  ...  bm
G( s)  
u ( s) a0 s n  a1s n1  ...  an
• The state of such a system is described by a set of first
order differential equations in terms of state variables
• ( x1 , x2 ,...xn ) and
( u1 , u2 ,...un ) .
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• The general form of the first order differential equation
is given as:
dx1
 a11 x1  a12 x2  ...  a1n xn  b11u1  ...  b1mum
dt
dx2
 a21 x1  a22 x2  ...  a2 n xn  b21u1  ...  b2 mum
dt
.
.
.
dxn
 an1 x1  an 2 x2  ...  ann xn  bn1u1  ...  bnmum
dt

• These equations can be combined and expressed in

x u
.
matrix form as: x  A B
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• Thus, x is an n-dimensional state vector given by;
 x1 
x 
 2
x  . 
. 
x 
 n

u is an m-dimensional input vector given by;

u1 
u 
 2
u  . 
. 
u 
 m
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
 a11a12 .....a1n 
 a a .....a 
A is an n-by-n system matrix given by;  21 22 2n 

. 
A 
 . 
. 
 
 n1 n 2
a a .....a nn 

B is an n-by-m control matrix given by; b11b12 .....b1m 
b b .....b 
 21 22 2m 

. 
B 
 . 
. 
 
 n1 n 2
b b .....bnm 

 In general, the outputs ( y1 , y2 ,..., yn ) of a linear system can be related to

the state variables and input variables by;
y=Cx+Du (The output equation(s))
Where: C=output matrix
D=feed-forward matrix
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
3.STATE EQUATIONS FROM TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
• Consider the general differential equation:
d n1 y dy d m1u du
an1 n1  ...  a1  a0 y  bm1 m1  ...  b1  b0u
dt dt dt dt

• This can be represented by the transfer function in

figure below:

bm1s m1  ...  b1s  b0

u ( s) G( s)  y( s)
an 1s n 1  ...  a1s  a0

Fig.1. General Transfer Function

BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• Now lets define a set of state variables such that;

x1  x2

x2  x3
.
.
.

xn   a0 x1  a1 x2  a2 x3  ...  an 1 xn  u

• The output equation is:

y  b0 x1  b1 x2  ...  bn1 xn

• We can now write down the general state equation as;

BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
 .  010.......................0   x  0 
 x1    
1
  
 .  001.......................0   x2  0 
 x2  .  .  . 
.      
   .  .   .  u
 .    .  . 
 .  .    
 x n 1  000.......................1   xn 1  0 
.      
 x n   a0  a1  a2 ...  an 1   xn  1 

• The state-space representation above is called the

Controllable Canonical Form (CCF).  x 
1
x 
• The output equation is:   2

. 
y  b0b1b2 ......bn 1   
. 
. 
 
 xn 
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• Example. y( s) 4
 3
Q1. Find the state and output equations for: u(s) s  3s 2  6s  2
Show the block diagram representation of the system.
Solution:
The characteristic equation is: s 3
 3s 2
 6s  2  0
Making the highest power of s the subject; s 3
 3s 2
 6s  2
 a0  2
It therefore follows that;
 a1  6
 a2  3
 BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• The state equation becomes:
. 
 x1  010   x1  0 
.     x   0 u
 2 
x  001  2  
 .   263   x  1 
 x3    3  
 
• Now to find the output equation, consider the
coefficients of the numerator: b0  4
b1  0
b2  0
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• Then, the output equation is:  x1 

y   4, 0, 0  x2  
 x3 
• Q2. Find the state and output equation for:

y(s) 5s  7 s  4
2
 3
Solution:
u ( s) s  3s 2  6s  2
a. State equation is the same as the one in first example
above because of the same characteristic equation in the
denominator.
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• b. Output equation:
b0  4
b1  7
b2  5
Then the output equation becomes:
 x1 

y   4, 7,5  x2  
 x3 
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
c. The block diagram representation is as shown below:

u(s) 1 y(s)
s3  3s 2  6s  2 5s  7s  4
2

G1 ( s) G2 ( s)

The overall gain is: y( s) 5s 2  7 s  4

G( s)   G1 ( s)G2 ( s)  3
u ( s) s  3s 2  6s  2
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• Q.3. Derive the transfer function equation given the
state equation and output:
. 
 x1  0100   x1  0
 .     x  0
 2
x 0010   2   u
 .  0001   x  0
 x3      
3

 .   9242   x4  1 
 x 4 

 x1 
x 
y   4, 2,1, 0  2

 x3 
 
 x4 
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• 4. CANONICAL REPRESENTATION OF SUBSYSTEMS
(KIRCHHOFF’S METHOD)
• Subsystems are represented by block diagrams.

R(s) C(s)
G(s)

System

Fig.2. System Block Representation

• R(s)=Reference/input (required output)

• G(s)=Transfer function of the system
• C(s)=Actual/controlled output
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
 Summing Junctions
 These are points where signals can be summed up,
according to Kirchhoff’s theorems.

R1 ( s)

R2 ( s) C (s)  R1 (s)  R2 (s)  R3 (s)

R3 ( s)

 Pick-off Points R( s )
 A pickoff point distributes the input signal.
R( s ) R( s )
R( s )
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• Cascaded Form
• Systems can be cascaded and overall transfer function
is the product of each transfer function(from left to
right).
R(s) C(s)
G1 G2 G3

Fig.3. Cascaded Blocks

• The equivalent transfer function is:
C ( s)
R(s)  Ge  G1G2G3 C(s)
R( s )
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• When the output is taken as the input and vice versa
for the same system (from right to left) with C(s) as the
input, we divide each individual subsystem by the
product of the transfer functions of the individual
systems.
R( s ) 1
  Ge
C ( s) G1G2G3

R(s) 1 C(s)
G1G2G3

Fig. Equivalent Transfer Function of Cascaded System taken in Reverse Direction

BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• Parallel Form
• Subsystems can be paralleled.
• Parallel subsystems have common input and an output
formed by the algebraic sum of the outputs from all of
the subsystems.
G1 X1(s)

R(s) X2(s) C(s)=X1(s)+X2(s)+X3(s)

G2

G3 X3(s)

Fig. Paralleled system

BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
 The overall transfer function is the sum of all the parallel
subsystems.
R(s) Ge  G1  G2  G3 C(s)

Fig. Equivalent transfer function of a paralleled system

 Feedback Form
 Another topology is the feedback form which we shall be
dealing with again and again.
 In this topology, part of the output is fed back either
negatively or positively to the input.
 The setup is on the next slide.
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
Plant &Controller

R(s) E(s) C(s)

+ G(s)
Input/
Ref Controlled output
±

C(s)H(s)
H(s)

Feedback
Fig. Feedback Control system

G(s)
The overall transfer function Ge 
is: 1  G(s) H (s)
G( s ) H ( s )
The value is called the Open-loop transfer
gain (loop-gain) of the systems.
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• The open loop transfer gain is the system gain when the
feedback loop is open circuited at the summing point.
• Note the application of Kirchhoff’s methods when
treating junctions and loops.

• 5. BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA (KIRCHHOFF METHOD)

• Block algebra is a step-by-step procedure for simplifying
multi-loop and inter-linked systems.
• The following diagrams show the conversion of a block to
its equivalence( one which you may be familiar with).
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS

Fig.a. Block Algebra

BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS

Fig.b. Block Algebra cont’d

 BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• Example
• Q. Use the block diagram manipulation to find the
overall transfer function of the following system.
C(s)
R(s
)
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• Solution: C(s)
R(s)

R(s) C(s)
Deviation Ratio (Error Ratio)
R(s E(s) C(s)
+ G(s)
)
-

B
H(s)

Feedback
Fig. Feedback Control system
• Consider a negative feedback control system above.
• E=R-B
• B=HC
• C=GE
• Then, E=R-CH
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• Substituting for C in E=R-CH we get:
• E=R-GEH
• => E(1+GH)=R
• Therefore;
E 1

R (1  GH )
• This is called the Error Ratio.
Feedback Ratio
• The closed loop transfer function of the above feedback
system is:
C G
• But, B=CH. 
R (1  GH )

B
Then: C
H
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• Substituting for C in in transfer function expression we
get: B

G
RH (1  GH )

B GH

R (1  GH )
• (Feedback Ratio).
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
 6. MASON’S RULE
 This is one method that can be used to reduce block
diagrams to single transfer functions.
 Mason’s formula requires evaluation of several components
of the system.
 The first step in this method is to convert the complex block
diagram into a signal flow diagram with junctions and pickup
points represented by nodes and the gains represented by
lines linking the nodes.
 It should be noted that this method is prone to errors and
extreme care should be taken when using the method.
 We start by defining basic terms commonly used when
dealing with Mason’s rule.
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• Loop gain (open loop gain)
• This is determined from each individual loop.
• This is the product of branch gains (GH) found by
following a path that starts at one node and ends at
the same node, following the direction of the signal
flow, without passing through any other node more
than once.
Example

Fig. Signal Flow Graph to Demonstrate Mason’s Rule

 BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• Considering the signal flow diagram above, there are 4
loop gains and these are:
• 1. G2 ( s ) H1 ( s )  L1
• 2. G4 ( s ) H 2 ( s )  L2
• 3. G4 ( s )G5 ( s ) H 3 ( s )  L3
• 4. G4 ( s )G6 ( s ) H 3 ( s )  L4
Forward –path gain
• This is the product of forward gains found by following a
path from the input node to the output node of a signal
flow graph in the direction of the signal flow.
• From the signal flow graphTabove, there are 2 forward
1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s )G3 ( s )G4 ( s )G5 ( s )G7 ( s )
path gains and these are: T  G (s)G ( s)G ( s)G ( s)G ( s)G ( s)
2 1 2 3 4 6 7
 BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
 Non-touching Loops
 These are loops that do not have any node in common.
 From the signal flow graph above, G loop
2 ( s ) H1 ( s)
does not share
nodes with any other loops (
G4 (s) H 2 (s), G4 (s)G5 (s) H3andG4 (s)G6 (s) H3 (s)
).
 Non-touching loop gains
 This is the product of the non-touching loop gain and the other
loop gains, taken two, three, four or more at a time.
 From the example above, there are three non-touching loop
gains taken two at a time:
 1. G2 ( s) H1 ( s)G4 (s) H 2 (s )
 2. G2 ( s) H1 ( s)G4 (s)G5 (s) H 3 (s)
 3.
G2 (s) H1 (s)G4 (s)G6 (s) H 3 (s)
 NB. The product G4 (s)G6 (s) H3 (s)G4 (s)G5 (s) H3 (s) is not a non-
touching loop gain because the two loops have common nodes.
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• Now we can state the Mason’s Rule.
Mason’s Rule
• The transfer function C(s)/R(s) of a system represented
by a signal flow graph is given by:
C ( s) Tk  k
G( s)   k
R( s ) 
• where;
k=number of forward paths.
=the kth forward path gain.
Tk
 =1-∑loop gains + ∑(non-touching loop gains taken two
at a time) - ∑(non-touching loop gains taken three at a
time)+ ∑(non- touching loop gains taken four at a
time)-….. .
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
 k =  - ∑loop gain terms in that touch the kth forward
path (  is formed by eliminating from  k those loop gains
that touch the kth forward path).
Alternatively:
 k =1- ∑single loops that do not touch Tk )+ ∑double
loops that do not touch Tk )-…….
• Now, from the example above we determine the transfer
function of the system from the signal flow graph.
• For forward gain-path T1:
• 1= 1- ∑(single loops that do not touch T1)+ ∑double loops
that do not touch T1)-…...
=1-0=1. (All single loops touch T1)
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
• For forward gain-path T2
• Find the loops that do not touch T2.
•  2 = 1- ∑(single loops that do not touch T2)+ ∑(double
loops that do not touch T2)-…...
=1-0=1 (All single loops touch T2)
• It therefore follows that:
k
=1
Alternatively, we can determine k by eliminating loop gain
 in
terms that touch the kth forward path.

= 1- ∑(loop gains)+ ∑(non-touching loop gains taken two
at a time) - ∑(non-touching loop gains taken three
at a time)+…
1   G2 (s) H1 ( s)  G4 ( s) H 2 ( s)  G4 ( s)G5 ( s) H 3  G4 ( s)G6 ( s) H 3 ( s)   (G2 ( s) H1( s) G4 ( s) H 2 ( s)  
=
G2 (s) H1 (s)G4 (s)G5 (s) H3 (s)  G2 (s) H1(s)G4 (s)G6 (s) H 3 (s) )
 BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS
•  k = - ∑loop gain terms in that touch the kth forward path
• For T1:
T1  G1 (s)G2 (s)G3 ( s)G4 ( s)G5 ( s)G7 ( s)

• 1 =1-0 =1 (All loop gains touch the 1st forward path )

• For T2:

T2  G1 (s)G2 (s)G3 ( s)G4 ( s)G6 ( s)G7 ( s)

•  2 = 1-0=1 (All loop gains touch the 2nd forward
path).
• Therefore we conclude that;
•  k =1.(as previously shown)
• Now we substitute in Mason’s formula to obtain the
BLOCK DIAGRAM MODELS

Tk  k (T1  T2 ).1 (G1 ( s)G2 ( s)G3 ( s)G4 ( s)G5 ( s)G7 ( s)  G1 ( s)G2 ( s)G3 ( s)G4 ( s)G6 ( s)G7 ( s))
G( s)   k  
  1   G2 ( s) H1 ( s)  G4 ( s) H 2 ( s)  G4 ( s)G5 ( s) H 3  G4 ( s)G6 ( s) H 3 ( s)  
(G2 (s) H1 ( s)G4 ( s) H 2 ( s)  G2 ( s) H1 ( s) G4 ( s)G5 ( s) H 3 ( s)  
G2 (s) H1 (s)G4 (s)G6 (s) H 3 (s))

• This expression represents the overall transfer function of

system with the signal flow in the example above.
• Q. Use Mason’s rule to determine the overall transfer
function of the system below:

C(s)
R(s
)

Solution