Communication &

Multimedia Design

Design Theory
Lecture 02: Design processes & problem solving

Bas Leurs (b.l.f.leurs@hr.nl)

February 13, 2014
what we discussed monday...
Today’s programme
Design processes

Design problems & Problem solving

a design process describes how
you as a designer can work.

a design process describes how

you as a designer must work.
descriptive vs prescriptive
w h a t i t i s,
e x plai n s t a te ( au t h
w i t w or k s. w h at i t sh
o r i t a t i ve l y
)
ho o u ld b e o r h
a c o u rs e o f ow
ac t io n s sh
o u ld
b e c a r r ie d
o u t.
why should you have a
design process?
 Why do you have a design process?
• To explain to the clients how you work?
• To ‘guarantee’ the outcome of a project?
• To prevent mistakes?
• To have an agreement how the team is
approaching the project?
• Because your teacher told you so?
• Because all designers do have a process?
 intangible: can
be perceived by

Symbolic

experiences
Design Art
Functional Expressive
practical / useful attractive / emotive

objects
Engineering

Physical
tangible: can be
perceived by
the senses
 Belief Belief
Full contro
l of t h e an ce is t he
Ch uty
physical w o f be a
orld is creator
possible
Idiosyncratic or
Prescriptive use Descriptive use secret methods
of methods of methods “I am not going to tell you
“This is how you should “This is how I make how I do it... Only the
design to avoid errors” my design” inner circle of specialists
know how the magic
works”

Engineering Design Art

Functional Expressive

Civil engineering Industrial design Interaction design Communication design Art

High penalty Low penalty

for error for error

People can get killed People can get hurt People can get frustrated People can get confused People can get annoyed
what is a process?
 A process

input process output

Hugh Dubberly (2008)

 process

state 1 step 1 step 2 step 3 step 4 state 2

a process consist of a series of actions

or steps that need to be taken to
attain a particular goal
 A very basal model of design

initial future
process
state state

current situation transformation function desired situation

Doblin (1987)
However, from initial state to end state is not a straightforward process

goal
state

initial
state

Gabriela Goldschmidt (1997)

A path to prefered states goes
through imagination

Ilpo Koskinen, John Zimmerman, Thomas Binder,

Johan Redstrom & Stephan Wensveen (2011)
 their form and function, their dimensions material surroundings for, in their innu- sweep of a suspension brid
and appearance, were determined The by mind’s
merable choiceseye and decisions, tech- ample, is much more than an
technologists-craftsmen, designers, in- nologists have determined the kind of geometry. The distinctive
ventors, and engineers-using non- world we live in, in a physical sense. three great suspension brid
scientific modes of thought. Carving The Pyramids,
Nature ofcathedrals,
Design and rockets exist York-the Brooklyn, Georg
knives, comfortable chairs, lighting fix- not because of geometry, theory of struc- ton, and Verazzano Narro
tures, and motorcycles are as they are tures, There or maythermodynamics, but because
well be only one acceptable more strongly the conceptua
because over the years their designers arrangement they were first a picture-literally
or configuration of a com-a vi- their designers and the tim
and makers have established shape, plex sion-in the minds
technological of those
device, such aswhoa mo-built construction than they do t
style, and texture. them (1).but that arrangement is neither
torcycle, requirements of their respe
he Mind's Eye: Nonverbal Many features and qualities of the ob- self-evident This article norattempts to clarify
scientifically the na-
predict- Different builders of large po
jects that a technologist thinks about able. tureTheand earlysignificance of nonverbal
designers of motorcycles use many common elemen
-Thought in Technologycannot be reduced to unambiguous ver- could thought.
not askIt science
traces the to tell them where of
development designs, but certain charact
bal descriptions; they are dealt with in tononverbal put engine, thought as practiced
battery, fuel tank,byand tech- internal "style" distinguish
his mind by a visual, nonverbal process. spark coil; they
nologists make their choices
sincehadtheto Renaissance, points of one maker from those of a
h pictures" is an essential strand in the
His mind's eye is a well-developed organ ontoother grounds
the many (see cover).
drawings In time,that
and pictures opportunities for a designer
that notdevelopment.
history of technological only reviews the contents of his wrong have both choices would
recorded be revealed,
and stimulated tech- his particular way of nonverb
visual memory but also forms such new but nological scientific analysis.
not bydevelopments, Makingthe
and reviews upon a machine or a structur
or modified images as his thoughts re- wrong graphic choices is the same
inventions, such askind of game
pictorial per- ly innumerable. This open-
Eugene S. Ferguson
quire. As he thinks about a machine, rea- asspective, making rightthat choices;
have lentthere is often
system no
and clari- cess can be seen in the desig
soning his way through successive steps a typriori do one thing
reason to thinking.
to nonverbal rather
A concluding iar, compact machine such as
in a dynamic process, he can turn it over than another,
section particularly
considers changingif neither hadto-
attitudes gine.
in his mind. The designer and the in- been warddone thebefore.
nonverbalNo bell rings when
component of the
tech- The designer of a diesel
e too readily assumes ventor, who bring elements together in optimum nology as design
they comes
have beento mind. Nor has
reflected in en- technologist who must cont
ledge may be incor- new combinations, are each able to as- the plight of
gineering designers
curricula suggests funda-
and changed some ef- his intuitive sense of rightn
ifacts of technology semble and manipulate
The author their minds
is professor ofin history Uni- mentally
at the de- in the 20th century.
fects of such changes upon the nature They must of ness. What will be the shape
versity of Delaware and curtor of technology of the
rom science. This as- Hagley
vices that as yet
Museum, exist. 19807.
do notDelaware
Greenville, ourweigh
still the imponderable and sound
technology. bustion chamber? Can I use
modem folklore that If we are to understand the devel- the unfathomable. All of our technology
26 AUGUST 1977
nscientific decisions, opment of Western technology, we must has a significant intellectual component
all, made by tech- appreciate this important, if unnoticed, that is both nonscientific and nonliterary.
sign the world we in- mode of thought. It has been nonverbal The creative shaping process of a tech-
ts of daily use have thinking, by and large, that has fixed the nologist's mind can be seen in nearly
nced by science, but outlines and filled in the details of our every man-made object that exists. The
ion, their dimensions material surroundings for, in their innu- sweep of a suspension bridge, for ex-
were determined by merable choices and decisions, tech- ample, is much more than an exercise in
tsmen, designers, in- nologists have determined the kind of geometry. The distinctive features of
gineers-using non- world we live in, in a physical sense. three Ferguson great suspension bridges in New
(1977)
of thought. Carving Pyramids, cathedrals, and rockets exist York-the Brooklyn, George Washing-
 How do you call these two types of processes?

Research

Research

Ideate

Ideate
Prototype

Embodiment

Embodiment

Prototype
 Waterfall versus Iterative

Research

Research

Ideate

Ideate
Prototype

Embodiment

Embodiment

Prototype
 Scrum

http://www.frankwatching.com/archive/2010/05/19/een-website-ontwerpen-met-agile-design-en-scrum-3-teams-en-overleg/
 let’s have a look at
some design processes
 Classic: Analysis - Synthesis - Evaluation

analysis synthesis evaluation

testing to discover the

breaking the problem putting the pieces
consequences of putting the
into pieces together in a new way
new arrangement into practice

John C. Jones (1970)

Basic Design Cycle

Function

Form

Roozenburg & Eekels (1995)

VDI (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure)

Who wants to design with

a process like this?
FBS Model (Function-Behaviour-Structure)

John Gero (1990)

Pahl & Beitz
 planning & conceptual
embodiment detail design
clarifying design

abstract concrete
 rough refined
scoping implement
concept concept
 comparison of design processes

Discover Define Design Deliver

Definition Concept Creation Implementation

Discover Define Design Develop

Discover Define Design Deliver

Specification Concept design Detail design Manufacture

Sense Interpret Decide Act

Research Ideate Embodiment Prototype

Creative explorations Idea generation Envisioning dreams Prototyping

Inspiration Direction Creation Experience

Goal Action Effect Measurement

Explore Generate Evaluate Communicate

Discover Identify Validate Articulate

Research Ideate Create

 Discover Ideate Embodiment Develop
Research Define Create Deliver
Specify Direction Design Prototype
Inspire Concept Envision Articulate

Discover Define Design Deliver

Definition Concept Creation Implementation

Discover Define Design Develop

Discover Define Design Deliver

Specification Concept design Detail design Manufacture

Sense Interpret Decide Act

Research Ideate Embodiment Prototype

Creative explorations Idea generation Envisioning dreams Prototyping

Inspiration Direction Creation Experience

Goal Action Effect Measurement

Explore Generate Evaluate Communicate

Discover Identify Validate Articulate

Research Ideate Create

fuzzy concrete
 Discover Ideate Embodiment Develop
? Research
Specify
Define
Direction
Create
Design
Deliver
Prototype $
Inspire Concept Envision Articulate

? What wows?
What is? What if What works?

See Jeanne Liedtka & Tim Ogilvie (2011)

 Eindkwalificaties
Communication & Multimedia Design
Eindkwalificaties: Communication & Multimedia Design

Concept
ken ontwikkelen Verbeelden Realiseren
Concept
Onderzoeken ontwikkelen Verbeelden Realiseren
Het kunnen formuleren en herformuleren van een Vormgeven van plannen, ideeën en visies. Ideeën uitwerken naar betekenisvolle
Concept Mogelijkheden bedenken om waarde te
Onderzoeken
ontwerpvraagstuk. D.m.v. van onderzoek tot de kern
ontwikkelen Verbeelden
creëren
Realiseren
voor gebruiker en opdrachtgever.
Overtuigen en verleiden met inspirerende interactieve producten, diensten en
van dat vraagstuk kunnen komen. Informatie visualisaties, prototypes, verhalen en belevingen. Aandacht hebben voor detail
Doelbewust experimenteren, grenzen
valideren en er conclusies uit trekken als uitgang- presentaties. zonder de grote lijn uit het oog te verliezen.
opzoeken en overschrijden om te komen tot
spunt voor het verdere ontwerpproces. Verzorgd kunnen werken en op tijd leveren.
niet voor de hand liggende concepten.
Creatief kunnen omgaan met beperkingen,
vasthoudend zijn, doorzetten.
Multidisciplinair Rationale &
mpathie werken Emotionale

Multidisciplinair Rationale &

Empathie werken Emotionale

Signatuur Adaptief leren

Empathie
Inleven in waarden, behoeften, Multidisciplinair Rationale & Signatuur Adaptief leren
drijfveren en ambities van klanten,
werken Emotionale Het hebben van een eigenwijze en
eigentijdse kijk op ontwerpvraa-
Voortdurend leerdoelen formuleren
door te reflecteren op leerproces,
Signatuur Adaptief
Kunnen samenwerken leren
in multidiscipli- Antwoord kunnen geven op de ‘waarom-
en mogelijkheden tot innovatie. gstukken en bijbehorende oplossin- werkproces en veranderende con-
nair verband en in staat zijn om daarin
Sensitief zijn voor mens en omgeving. gen en deze visie kunnen uitdragen text. Inspelen op kansen en ontwik-
het (eigen) werkproces en werkomgeving ontwerpbeslissingen. De mens centraal
Open staan voor andere denk- en en delen met anderen. kelingen.
Rotterdam – Communication & Multimedia Design te organiseren. stellen in alle ontwerpkeuzes en deze
door: Saskia Best, Tim Fleumer, Bas Leurs,levenswijzen.
Jasper Schelling, Peter van Waart
onderbouwen op basis van onderzoek,
theorie, best practices en intuïtie.

Hogeschool
Hogeschool
Hogeschool Rotterdam
Rotterdam Rotterdam ––Communication
– CommunicationCommunication
& Multimedia Design&&Multimedia
Multimedia DesignDesign
Versie:
2 Juni, 2012,2door:
Versie: 2juli, 2012,
juli, 2012,
Saskia Door:
Door:
Best, Saskia
Saskia
Tim Fleumer, Best,
Leurs,Tim
Best,
Bas Tim Fleumer,
Schelling, Bas
Fleumer,
Jasper Leurs,
Bas van
Peter Leurs,
Waart
Jasper
JasperSchelling,
Schelling,Peter
Petervan
vanWaart
Waart
 The primary generator

Darke describes a primary generator as: a particular

objective that is strongly valued and self-imposed, which
heavily relies on subjective judgment. A primary generator
serves as a starting point and gives the process a direction.

Jane Darke (1979)

 An example of a primary generator

“It's  weird  to  say  it.  We  say…  Wow!  This  is  a  universe,  
it's  their  own  world,  they  have  a  campus'.  We  are  
creating  a  universe...  it's  Universe  Twente.  We  started  
walking  around  like  Star  Trek,  we're  going  to  create  
an  independent  world!  These  were  some  @irst  
thoughts.”

Liza Enebeis (Studio Dumbar) explaining the primary generator of the visual identity of University of Twente
DNA of University of Twente
research ideas concept prototype product

fuzzy front end

Analysis-Synthesis Bridge Model

Hugh Dubberly, Shelley Evenson & Rick Robinson (2008)

Zie N@tschool
PROBLEMS
What is
a MFP?
 MFP

Major F cking Problem

MFP-tje = Minor F*cking Problem

the architecture of
problems
what is a
problem?
 p t u a l proble m
A c once n w e simpl y
h e
a r i s e s w rs t a n d
n de
do n o t u a b o u t t h e
A (practical) problem is caused by s ome t h
a
i ng
s w e l l a s we
wo r ld
some condition in the world that wo u l d l
ike .

makes us unhappy because it costs us

time, respect, security, pain, money
or even our lives.

Problems consist of two elements:

+
a situation undesirable
consequences
or condition caused by that condition

Wayne Booth, Gregory Colomb and Joseph Williams (1995)

 what is a
design problem?
design is about ‘fit’
or misfit... and hence solved
by appropriation
 Let’s have a look at product use

product user

Sometimes (or often) there is a misfit between “use

plans” and users (Houkes & Vermaas, 2006).
Because “use plans” are aimed towards pre-
determined product use.

However, users appropriate the artefacts that they

use and neglect the intentions that were enscribed
by the designer.
retrofitted
alteration
 Ikea Hacks
hacking http://www.ikeahackers.net/2011/01/best-hack-of-2010-your-vote-needed.html
fiets parasol voor de warme zomerdagen ook te gebruiken voor regen

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8HTFK75cpHY
A tool addresses human needs by amplifying human capabilities.

Bret Victor (2011)

worrydream.com/#!/ABriefRantOnTheFutureOfInteractionDesign
Design problems occur when there is a misfit between one of these relations

le m

Us
ob

er
FfiITt

FfiIT
Pr

t
Product

FI
fitT
Business
initial state transformation function future state

Design as a unique type of problem solving

Design is a unique type of problem solving. It is the maximum expression of
human intelligence and the prototypical case of cognition, as it requires devising
future states of the world (goals), recognizing current ones (initial states) and
finding paths to bridge both (transformation functions).

John Restrepo & Henri Christiaans (2003)

 initial state transformation function future state

However, because of the very nature of design problems,

there is very often very little information about the problem,
even less information about the goal (solution) and absolutely
no information about the transformation function.

John Restrepo, Henri Christiaans (2003)

 So... the problem with design problems is:

“Design problems in general can be

characterized as not being subject to
systematisation, incomplete, and vague.”
John Restrepo, Henri Christiaans (2003)

“Design problems are largely

underdetermined”
Kees Dorst (2006)
 Design problems are also decribed as:

ill-defined or ill-structured problems

Herbert Simon (1973)

le m s t h a t p la n n e rs
f p ro b
T h e kin ds o a re
– s o c ie t a l p ro ble m s –
de a l w it h the
r e n t ly d if f e re nt f ro m
in h e aps
c ie n t is ts a n d p e r h

wicked problems
a t s
p ro ble m s t h e rs de a l w it h
.
s o f e n g in e
s o m e c la s se t ly
p r o b le m s a re in h e re n
Pla n n in g
w ic ke d .
Horst Rittel & Melvin Webber (1973)
 Properties of wicked problems

1. There is no definitive formulation of a wicked problem

2. Wicked problems have no stopping rule
3. Solutions to wicked problems are not true-or-false, but good-or-bad
4. There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked problem
5. Every solution to a wicked problem is a "one-shot operation"; because there
is no opportunity to learn by trial-and-error, every attempt counts significantly
6. Wicked problems do not have an enumerable (or an exhaustively
describable) set of potential solutions, nor is there a well-described set of
permissible operations that may be incorporated into the plan
7. Every wicked problem is essentially unique
8. Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another
problem
9. The existence of a discrepancy representing a wicked problem can be
explained in numerous ways. The choice of explanation determines the
nature of the problem's resolution
10. The planner has no right to be wrong

Horst Rittel & Melvin Webber (1973)

A design has to be perfect!
Designs don't have to be optimal
or perfect: results that are not
quite optimum or less than perfect
are often completely satisfactory
for everyday usage. No
everyday product is perfect, nor
need they be.

Donald Norman (2010)

“Designing is satisficing,
finding an acceptable
solution.”

Herbert Simon (1995)

 S u f fi ce
+
S atisf y
Satisficing
"Since there did not seem to be any word in
English for decision methods that look for good or
satisfactory solutions instead of optimal ones, some
years ago I introduced the term ‘satisficing’ to
refer to such procedures." (p. 119)

Herbert Simon (1995)

 the mechanisms
of design problems
Design is a game, with unknown
rules that become apparent once you
have explored the problem and
solution space simultaniously.
In design ‘perfect’ solutions do not exist.
Simply because we do not know what the
perfect solution is.
The renowned experiment by Bryan Lawson (1979)
Science students Architecture students
The renowned experiment by Bryan Lawson (1979)

During the session participants had

access to a computer to get help or
to verify their solutions.
There were some ‘game rules’ that
were not apparent to the participant,
but stored in a computer program.
 The renowned experiment by Bryan Lawson (1979)
Science students Architecture students

pr o bl e m t i o n
a so l u
Adopted t e gy Adopted a
g st ra t ra t e gy
focusin o rs focusi n g s
al er r rro rs
uctu
r ing e
we r st r
r plann
de fe e f ewe
M a Mad
Scientists versus Designers

problem focused solution focused

 Co-evolution of problem–solution

The problem- and solution space are interwoven. Solution

conjectures are helpful to explore and understand the
problemspace

Kees Dorst (2001)

 now... a bit of a
different problem
solving approach
Situation
30,000 young people
Every Friday and Saturday
night)

Problems
Binge drinking, fights,
pickpocketing and drugs
related crime

Dorst & Tomkin (2011)

 ld I vo do ?
What wou
More... surveillance!!!
Enforce the law... strictly!!!

Higher... penalties

an method
The grumpy old m
“The countermeasures that have been taken over
the years have created a slightly grim
environment, and don’t seem to help much in
preventing crimes and anti social behavior.
Increasing the police presence beyond the current
level is not an attractive option.”

Dorst & Tomkin (2011)

What would you organize if
you were organizing a
music festival?
These are young people
wanting to have a good
time, not hard core
criminals. But a crowd of
30,000 young people, that
could be compared to a
good-sized music festival
Dorst & Tomkin (2011)
reframing
“'Framing' is the term commonly used for the
creation of a novel standpoint from which a
problematic situation can be tackled — this
includes perceiving the situation in a certain way,  
adopting certain concepts to describe the
situation, patterns of reasoning and problem
solving that are associated with that way of
seeing, leading to the possibilty to act within that
situation.”

Dorst & Tomkin (2011)

Salut!
Next lecture:
Design as Learning
Design Methods & Tools

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