Huh?

Paradoxes, Fallacies, and Other

Surprising Results in Mathematics

July 20, 2012

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Contents

I Introduction to Paradoxes and Fallacies 3

1 Vanishing Square Problem 4

2 Algebra Quirks 5

3 All Triangles are Isosceles 6

4 Spheres 8

5 Same Time, Same Place 10

6 Who is the Better Student? 11

II Problems 13

III Hints 18

IV Solutions 20

V References 28

(Whittemore, 1735)

“A Paradox is a seeming Falsity, but a real Truth; ’tis that, which to unthinking Persons, seems absurd or
impossible; but, to a thoughtful Man, is plain and evident: The main Drift whereof is to whet the Appetite
of an inquisitive Learner, and to set him upon Thinking.”

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Part I
Introduction to Paradoxes and Fallacies

(Gardner, 1970)

If the side of the card shown on top is true, then the side shown on the bottom must be true. If that is
the case, then it tells us that the side of the card shown at the top is false, which allows us to conclude that
the side of the card shown at the bottom is true. This means that the side of the card shown at the top is
true, and so on. The card above demonstrates a logical conundrum, a paradoxical result.

A mathematical paradox involves a truth that is so surprising it is difficult to believe, even after it has
been shown to be true. On the other hand, a mathematical fallacy presents itself as being true, but can
be shown to contain mistakes; the more subtle the errors, the better the fallacy. Although paradoxes and
fallacies occur in most branches of mathematics, this module will focus on ones related to geometry and
algebra, rather than topics like logic, optical illusions, or infinity.

Why should we study paradoxes and fallacies? Maxwell (1959) claims that “a wrong idea may often
be exposed more convincingly by following it to its absurd conclusion√ than by√merely
√ announcing the error
and starting again.”
√ For
√ example,
√ students
√ may fail to realize that a + b 6
= a + b in general, until they
encounter 5 = 25 = 9 + 16 = 9 + 16 = 3 + 4 = 7!

Paradoxes and fallacies produce cognitive conflict and a state of disequilibrium, and like a good magic
trick, they are as entertaining as they are baffling. Many mathematicians have been surprised when encoun-
tering a paradox in their work; dealing with these paradoxes allowed them to make further developments in
mathematical theory. For example, it bothered the early Greeks that the diagonal of a unit square could
not be measured accurately, no matter what type of ruler was used; this motivated the study of irrational
numbers.

The discussion and problem set that follows is meant to provide a challenge to students at the high
school level. The following examples of mathematical paradoxes, fallacies, and other surprising results are
fully discussed in order to introduce the reader to methods of analyzing each situation. You are invited
to use tools at your disposal (such as pencil and paper, ruler, calculator or computer with graphing and
dynamic geometry capabilities) to verify the results from these problems.

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1 Vanishing Square Problem
The 8 × 8 square on the left has been split into four different regions. When these regions are rearranged
into a 5 × 13 rectangle, it becomes clear that 8 × 8 = 64 6= 65 = 5 × 13. Where did the missing square go in
the left diagram? (Gardner, 1982), (Sharp, 2002)

Not all things are as they seem! We should examine the pieces in the right diagram more closely. If we
consider the length of the slanted portion of the four pieces, we see that two of the pieces have a side of slope
of 52 and the other two pieces have a side of slope of 38 . However, 25 = 16 15 3
40 > 40 = 8 , so the diagonal segments
have slopes that are very close, but not identical. This small difference accounts for a sliver of space that
exists between the pieces in the right diagram which accounts for the extra square.

More generally, if you have an n × n square, you can slice it into two pieces of width a and n − a, halve
each piece according to the left diagram, and then rearrange them into the rectangle on the right. However,
the slanted portion of the triangular pieces has a slope of na and the slope of the slanted portion of the
trapezoidal pieces has a slope of (n−a)−(a)
n−a = n−2a
n−a ; these expressions are not equivalent to one another, so
the slopes are not the same.

The Fibonacci sequence starts with the values 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, . . . and each subsequent term in the se-
quence is the sum of the two previous terms. Using symbols, if Fk represents the k th term of the Fibonacci
sequence, then Fk = Fk−1 + Fk−2 . A special case occurs when the values of n − a, n, and 2n − a are
consecutive numbers in the Fibonacci sequence.

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 One property of three consecutive Fibonacci numbers is that (Fk )2 and Fk−1 · Fk+1 differ by exactly 1
(known as Cassini’s identity). (Fk )2 − Fk−1 · Fk+1 = 1 if k is odd and (Fk )2 − Fk−1 · Fk+1 = −1 if k is even.

In the specific case discussed above, since the three consecutive Fibonacci numbers are n − a = 5 = F5 ,
n = 8 = F6 , and 2n − a = 13 = F7 , we can verify the above result by showing that (Fk )2 − Fk−1 · Fk+1 =
(F6 )2 − F5 · F7 = 82 − 5 · 13 = 64 − 65 = −1.

In the case where the rectangle has an area of one unit more than the square, we have,

(2n − a)(n − a) − n2 = 1
2 2 2
2n − 2na − na + a − n = 1
2 2
a − 3na + n − 1 = 0

Since this expression is quadratic with respect to the variable a,

p
3n ± (−3n)2 − 4(1)(n2 − 1)
a =
√ 2
3n ± 9n − 4n2 + 4
2
a =
√ 2
3n ± 5n2 + 4
a =
2

Investigations:
a) What values of n will result in integer values of a? Does it make a difference if n is odd or even?
b) Does the ± sign matter?
c) Dissect squares with side lengths equal to other Fibonacci numbers (3, 5, 13, 21, ...). How do the
slopes of the angled cuts compare in each of these cases?

Extensions:
a) The Fibonacci sequence starts with 1, 1, . . ., but you can start a “generalized Fibonacci sequence” with
any pair of numbers. Explore how the number of squares gained or lost relates to the particular sequence you
start with.
b) Is it possible to cut the square in a way so that the four pieces can be rearranged into a rectangle that
has exactly the same area as the square?

2 Algebra Quirks
Start with x = 1.
Multiply by x x2 = x
2
Subtract 1 x −1 = x−1
x2 −1 x−1
Divide by x − 1 x−1 = x−1
(x+1)(x−1)
x−1 = 1
x+1 = 1
Since x = 1: (1) + 1 = 1
2 = 1

(Bunch, 1982)

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 Each step seems logical, yet we arrive at a final step that cannot possibly be true. Where did things go
wrong?

At the step where we divide both sides by (x − 1), since x = 1, we are dividing by zero, which is met
with unpredictable results!

Division by zero is never allowed, but there are some operations that can be accepted almost all of the
time. If we realize that ab = ac implies that b = c, then the equation x3 = 32 has a solution of x = 2.
(Bunch, 1982)

x−3 x−3
By the same logic, to solve the equation x−1 = x−2 we would conclude that x − 1 = x − 2, implying that
−1 = −2, or 1 = 2.

(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)

=
x−1 x−2
(x − 2)(x − 3) = (x − 1)(x − 3)
x2 − 5x + 6 = x2 − 4x + 3
−5x + 6 = −4x + 3
3 = x

3−3
Now we can see what caused the original fallacy. If x = 3, the original statement is 3−1 = 3−3 0 0
3−2 ⇒ 2 = 1 .
0 0 a a
This statement is true, but 2 = 1 . The statement that b = c implies b = c must also state that a 6= 0.

3 All Triangles are Isosceles

Use the arguments and diagram below to “prove” that all triangles are isosceles.
(Movshovitz-Hadar, 1998), (Maxwell, 1959)

Let ABC be a triangle. Construct the angle bisector of 6 A and the perpendicular bisector of BC; call
their point of intersection O. Let points P , Q, and R be the feet of the perpendiculars from point O to
segments BC, CA, and AB respectively.

1. Prove that ∆ARO and ∆AQO are congruent and deduce that OR = OQ and AR = AQ.
2. Prove that OB = OC.
3. Prove that ∆BOR and ∆COQ are congruent and deduce that BR = CQ.
4. Use the above information to conclude that AB = AC.

“Proof”

1. Since 6 RAO = 6 QAO (definition of angle bisector), 6 ARO = 6 AQO = 90◦ (by construction), and
AO is common to both triangles, ∆ARO is congruent to ∆AQO. Therefore, OR = OQ and AR = AQ.
2. All points on the perpendicular bisector of a line segment are equidistant from the endpoints of the
line segment. Since O lies on the perpendicular bisector of BC, it follows that OB = OC.

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 (Movshovitz-Hadar, 1998)

3. Since OB = OC, OR = OQ, and 6 BRO = 6 CQO, ∆BOR and ∆COQ are congruent, therefore
BR = CQ.
4. AB = AR + RB = AQ + QC = AC, therefore all triangles are isosceles.

(Movshovitz-Hadar, 1998)

The fallacy lies in the construction of the original diagram; it turns out that it is not possible for O, the
intersection of the angle bisector of 6 A and perpendicular bisector of BC, to lie within the circle! If you
were to plot the circumcircle of ∆ABC (the circle that passes through the vertices of ∆ABC), O would have
to lie on the circumcircle as well, which is outside of ∆ABC. This is due to the fact that angles subtended
by equal chords (namely OB and OC) are equal angles (6 OAB and 6 OAC). Therefore, OA is the angle
bisector of 6 BAC.

What about the location of R and Q on the figure above? Either R lies inside the triangle and Q lies
outside the triangle, or vice versa, as shown in the diagram below.

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 (Movshovitz-Hadar, 1998)

To illustrate why this is the case, consider the line AO. It is not a diameter of the circle (otherwise the
triangle would be isosceles), so we know that it does not pass through the centre of the circle. If the centre
lies between B and line AO, then 6 OBA subtended by AO must be less than 90◦ , so R must lie between
A and B so that 6 ORA = 90◦ . At the same time, then centre and C would lie on opposite sides of AO, so
6 OCA subtended by AO must be greater than 90◦ , so Q must lie outside of AC so that 6 OQA = 90◦ . If
the centre and B lie on opposite sides of AO, the reverse situation occurs, and R lies outside the triangle
and Q lies inside the triangle.

Since either AB = AR − RB and AC = AQ + QC, or AB = AR + RB and AC = AQ − QC, it is not

possible for us to conclude that AB = AC, and so ∆ABC is not isosceles in general.

4 Spheres
Each of the spheres below has a cylindrical hole 6 cm long drilled directly through its centre. Does the
smaller sphere have less, more, or the same volume remaining after the hole is drilled? (Rohrer, 1994)

(Rohrer, 1994)

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 Like many paradoxes, it may appear as though we have not been given enough information to solve the
problem. However, despite how few details we are given, we can solve the problem with a careful analysis of
the situation.

(Puzzle Playground, 2003)

Let R represent the radius of the sphere. Since the diameter is at least 6 cm, then R ≥ 3. The right
triangle in the
√ above diagram
√ has a hypotenuse of R, and one leg has a length of 3 cm, so the other leg has
a length of R2 − 32 = R2 − 9 by the Pythagorean Theorem.

The volume remaining after the hole is drilled is equal to the total volume of the sphere, less the volumes
of the inner cylinder and the spherical caps on both ends.
√
The cylinder has a volume of πr2 h = π( R2 − 9)2 (6) = 6π(R2 − 9).

The spherical caps on either end of the drilled cylinder have an altitude of A = R − 3.

The volume of a spherical cap is 31 πA2 (3R − A). (Weisstein)

Therefore, the volume remaining after the hole is drilled is

 
4 3 1 2
πR − 6π(R2 − 9) − 2 πA (3R − A)
3 3
4 3 2
= πR − 6πR2 + 54π − π(R − 3)2 (3R − (R − 3))
3 3
4 3 2
= πR − 6πR2 + 54π − π(R2 − 6R + 9)(2R + 3)
3 3
4 3 2
= πR − 6πR2 + 54π − π(2R3 + 3R2 − 12R2 − 18R + 18R + 27)
3 3
4 3 2
= πR − 6πR2 + 54π − π(2R3 − 9R2 + 27)
3 3
4 3 4
= πR − 6πR2 + 54π − πR3 + 6πR2 − 18π
3 3
= 36π

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 Since this result is a constant, the smaller sphere must have exactly the same volume remaining after the
hole is drilled as the larger sphere. Not only that, but since this result does not depend on the radius of the
sphere, R, a hole drilled in any sphere whose diameter is at least 6 cm will have the same remaining volume!

It is interesting to examine the extreme case where the diameter of the sphere is exactly 6 cm. This means
that the “hole” has a radius of 0 cm; this entire sphere has a volume of 34 πR3 = 34 π(3)3 = 43 π(27) = 36π, as
before.

5 Same Time, Same Place

A hiker starts walking up a mountain trail at 7:00am and arrives at the summit at 7:00pm the same day.
He wakes up the next morning and starts walking down the same trail at 7:00am and reaches the bottom
of the trail at 7:00pm that day. Is it possible for the hiker to be at a point on the trail at the same time on
each of the two days? (Gardner, 1982)

Not only is it possible, but it must occur!

To argue why this must be true, we could ask, “What if the hiker had a twin who started down the hill
at the same time the hiker started walking up?” At some point along the journey, the two twins would meet
along the path, and they would be at the same point at exactly the same time! The hikers could walk at
different speeds along the way or stop for any length of time to eat or rest, so we would not know where the
meeting point would be, but we know that they are guaranteed to meet.

This problem is a simple application of what people studying a branch of mathematics named topology
would call a fixed-point theorem. It only tells you that such a point exists, but cannot tell you where the
point is actually located.

Imagine that you have a box and there is a piece of paper that fits exactly in the bottom of the box.
That is, every point on the paper corresponds to a unique point on the bottom of the box. If you take the
paper, crumple it up into a ball and throw it back into the bottom of the box, the fixed-point theorem states
that no matter where it lands in the box or how the paper is crumpled, there must be at least one point on
the paper that is above its corresponding point on the bottom of the box!

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 As an initial explanation to see why this is true, take the paper and fold it in half horizontally and put it
back in with its edges parallel to the sides of the box; there will be an infinite number of points on a line that
lie above their corresponding points on the bottom of the box. Even if you rotate the folded piece of paper
at any specific angle around a fixed point, there will still be a point on the paper above its corresponding point.

Next, imagine the paper being folded again, this time in a vertical direction, and placed in the box so
that its edges are parallel to the sides of the box. Again, there would be line of points that satisfy this
property, and even if you rotate the paper at any specific angle around a fixed point, there would be a point
on the paper above its corresponding point. In this way, we can start to see why a crumpled piece of paper
contains one of these special points.

6 Who is the Better Student?

Patria and Bruce were discussing their math test results. “I took 6 tests in the first semester and passed 5
of them,” said Patria.
“That is better than my performance,” said Bruce. “I passed only 8 out of the 10 tests I took, and
5 8
6 > 10 . How did you do in the second semester, Patria?”
“Not so well as in the first semester. I took 14 tests, but I passed only 6.”
“I did not do so well in the second semester either,” said Bruce. “I managed to pass only 4 out of 10,
6 4
but you still did better than I did, because 14 > 10 .”
“Just wait a minute, Patria,” said Bruce. “You did better than I did in both semesters, but we both
took 20 tests, right?”
“Sure!” agreed Patria.
“Well, I passed 12 altogether, 8 in the first semester and 4 in the second, and you passed only 11, 5 in
the first and 6 in the second. That means that I did better than you over the two semesters.”
“Hey, that does not add up!” said Patria indignantly. “If I did better than you in each of the two
semesters separately, how could you have done better than I did overall? Let’s check those figures again.”
And they did, but the numbers came out just the same. How would you help Patria and Bruce sort out
this paradox? (Movshovitz-Hadar, 1998)

This paradox is known to mathematicians as Simpson’s Paradox after English statistician E. H. Simpson,
who discussed it in a paper written in 1951. However, it has been found that others had considered this idea
prior to Simpson.

The problem lies in dealing with averages. Comparing averages may not tell you everything you need to
know, since an average is a value taken out of a set of data, which means losing some information about the
set of data itself.

This problem highlights a common error made by students where they add fractions by adding the nu-
merators and adding the denominators, but ab + dc 6= a+c
b+d .

As a real-life example of Simpson’s Paradox, a claim was made in Massachusetts in 1854 that foreigners
were more likely to be insane than native-born Americans (Havil, 2008). The table below shows that the
625
probability that a foreign-born person was found to be insane was 230000 = 2.7 × 10−3 , but a native-born
2007 −3
individual was insane with probability 894676 = 2.2 × 10 .

Entire Population Insane Not Insane Totals

Foreign born 625 229 375 230 000
Native born 2007 892 669 894 676
Totals 2632 1 112 044 1 124 676

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 However, if the population was divided by class first . . .

Pauper Class Insane Not Insane Totals Independent Class Insane Not Insane Totals
Foreign born 182 9090 9272 Foreign born 443 200 285 220 728
Native born 250 12 513 12 763 Native born 1757 880 156 881 913
Totals 432 21 603 22 035 Totals 2200 1 100 441 1 102 641
182
. . . we find that the probability that a foreign-born person is found to be insane is 9272 ≈ 0.02, whereas
250
for a native-born person it is 12673 ≈ 0.02! We find that the probabilities for the independent class are both
2.0 × 10−3 , so if we adjust for the status of individuals, we cannot find a relationship between sanity and
place of origin.

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Part II
Problems
1. The Earth’s Equator based on (Rohrer, 1993)
Assume the Earth is a perfect sphere. A string is wrapped around the Earth’s equator and the two
ends of the string just touch. How much string would you need to add to this loop so that the new
string can be pulled tight and suspended a full metre above the ground around the entire Earth?

2. The Rowboat Paradox (Movshovitz-Hadar, 1998)

A rowboat is floating in a harbour, and a man is standing on a pier, using a long rope to pull the boat
toward the harbour wall. When the man has moved one metre, how far has the boat moved: more
than one metre, less than one metre, or exactly one metre?

3. Any number is larger than itself (Rohrer, 1993)

Explain the contradiction between the first and last lines:

a = b+c c 6= 0
(a − b)a = (a − b)(b + c)
a2 − ab = ab + ac − b2 − bc
a2 − ab − ac = ab + ac − b2 − bc − ac
a(a − b − c) = b(a − b − c)
a = b

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4. Opposite Ends of the Earth (Gardner, 1982)
True or False: There are always at least two antipodal points on the Earth’s surface (points on opposite
sides of the Earth, joined by a straight line through the Earth’s centre) that have exactly the same
temperature at any given moment.

5. Goldfish Removal
An aquarium contains 200 fish, 99% of which are goldfish. How many goldfish would have to be re-
moved so that 98% of the remaining fish are goldfish?

6. The Pizza Paradox (Rohrer, 1994)

A round hole is cut out of two pizzas of different diameters such that a line drawn tangent to each hole
has a length of 10 inches. Which pizza has the greater area?

7. 1 = 3? (Maxwell, 1959)
Explain the contradiction between the first and last lines:

√ √
5−x = 1+ x
√ √ 2
( 5 − x)2 = (1 + x)
√
5−x = 1+2 x+x
√
4 − 2x = 2 x
√
2−x = x
2
√ 2
(2 − x) = ( x)
4 − 4x + x2 = x
x2 − 5x + 4 = 0
(x − 4)(x − 1) = 0
x = 4 or 1
√ √ √ √
However, if x = 4, 5−x=1+ x⇒ 5−4=1+ 4 ⇒ 1 = 3.

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8. Minimum Distance (Gardner, 1970)
A man wishes to build a house on a large triangular plot of ground, then construct three straight roads,
each leading from the house to a side of the triangle and each road perpendicular to the side. The
triangle is equilateral. Where should he place his house in order to minimize the sum of the lengths of
the three roads?

9. Squish! (Gardner, 1970)

A flatcar that is 30 feet long is being moved along a straight track by three circular logs. The centres
of the logs are always 10 feet apart. When a log gets to the back of the flatcar, it is picked up and
placed at the front, as shown in the diagram. Exactly 55 feet in front of the flatcar lies a flatworm. As
the flatcar moves forward, how many logs will roll over the flatworm?

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10. The Ping Pong Puzzle (Gardner, 1978)
A ping pong club decided to have a single-elimination tournament. If 5 players take part, one player
would have to be given a ‘bye’ and two games would take place. There would be 3 players in the second
round, so one player would have to be given a ‘bye’ and one game would take place. The final pair of
players would have to play against each other, for a total of four games.
What is the total number of games that would need to be played if there are 37 players? 84 players?

11. Two-Mile Drive (Rohrer, 1993)

If one has already driven one mile at 30 mph, how fast must one drive the second mile so that the
average speed for the trip equals 60 mph?

12. Simpson’s Paradox (Movshovitz-Hadar, 1998)

Find a set of numbers that behave according to Simpson’s Paradox; that is, find values of a, b, c, d, p, q, r,
and s such that ab > pq and dc > rs , but a+c p+r
b+d < q+s .

13. Grapefruit (Rohrer, 1994)

Suppose you take a grapefruit that is 5 inches in diameter and cut it into one-inch slices, as shown
below. Assuming the skin has a thickness of zero, which slice has the greatest surface area?

14. Howlers (Maxwell, 1959)

Maxwell calls incorrect logic which produces a correct result a “howler”.

(a) If you take a fraction, such as 16

64 and incorrectly reduce the 6s, you get
1
4, but 16
64 = 41 . Create
another example that has this property.

16
 (b) We can show that x = 80 is a solution of the equation x2 + (x + 4)2 = (x + 36)2 by showing that
L.S.=(80)2 + (84)2 = 6400 + 7056 = 13456 and R.S. = (80 + 36)2 = (116)2 = 13456. Find the
errors in the following “solution”.

x2 + (x + 4)2 = (x + 36)2
x2 + x2 + 4 2 = x2 + 362
x2 + x2 + 16 = x2 + 336
x2 + x2 − x2 = 336 − 16
4
x = 320
x = 80

15. The Vanishing Square

Where did the missing square go?

(Wikipedia)

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Part III
Hints
1. The Earth’s Equator
Use a specific value for the radius of the Earth.

2. The Rowboat Paradox

Try building a model using string, on paper, or using technology.

3. Any number is larger than itself

Consider the quantity a − b − c.

4. Opposite Ends of the Earth

Assume that as you travel in a great circle around the Earth, the change in temperature is continuous.
(A great circle is any circle around the Earth, the centre of which is the centre of the Earth.) When
you travel back around to your original point, it is at its original temperature.

5. Goldfish Removal
Let x represent the number of goldfish that need to be removed, or consider the non-goldfish in the
aquarium.

6. The Pizza Paradox

Add a radius and form a right triangle.

7. 1 = 3?
What happens to an equation when you square both sides? For example, if you have the equation
x = 10, what do you notice after you square both sides?

8. Minimum Distance

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9. Squish!
How does the rate the logs move compare to the rate at which the flatcar moves?

10. The Ping Pong Puzzle

Pick several small values for the number of players and figure out how many games would need to be
played in each case.
How many losses are needed to declare a winner?

11. Two-Mile Drive

Let x represent the amount of time it takes to travel the second mile, in hours.

12. Simpson’s Paradox

Use trial and error. Pick some values and adjust others until they satisfy Simpson’s Paradox.

13. Grapefruit

(Weisstein)

The surface area of a spherical cap is π(a2 + h2 ). Use the relationships between a, R, and h above to
rewrite this expression in terms of R and h.

14. Howlers
(a) Let the numerator be represented by the expression 10a + b and let the denominator be repre-
sented by the expression 10b + c.

(b) Check carefully to see if the rules of algebra are being applied correctly from one row to the next.

15. The Vanishing Square

The outer shape is not a triangle.

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Part IV
Solutions
1. The Earth’s Equator
Let r represent the radius of the Earth. Then the circumference of the original loop is 2πr. If we
add string to this loop so that the new loop can be suspended a full metre above the ground, the
circumference of the new loop would be 2π(r + 1).
The amount of string that would need to be added would be the difference between these two circum-
ferences.

2π(r + 1) − 2πr = 2πr + 2π − 2πr

= 2π

Therefore, you would only need to add 2π metres (only a little over 6 metres) of string so that the new
loop can be suspended a full metre above the ground! Since the result does not involve the variable r,
this result is true for any sphere, whether it is as big as Jupiter or as small as an orange.

2. The Rowboat Paradox

The boat actually moves more than one metre!

Solution 1 Let b represent the distance the boat has moved and let x represent the final length of
rope from the pier to the boat. Then the original length of rope from the pier to the boat is x + 1, as
shown below.

The Triangle Inequality states that the sum of any two sides of a triangle must be greater than the
third side. In this case, x+b > x+1 ⇒ b > 1, so the distance the boat moves is greater than one metre.

Another way to demonstrate this idea geometrically is to draw two circles of radius 1 and x as shown
in the diagram below. The length of b is longer than the unit radius of the smaller circle, so b > 1 and
the distance the boat moves is greater than one metre.

Solution 2 We can show that the boat actually moves more than one metre by using a specific
example. Suppose that the height of the pier above the water is 4 m, and the length of the rope from

20
 the edge of the pier to the boat is 5 m. When the man moves one metre along the pier, the remaining
rope will be the same as the√height of the pier, so by the Pythagorean Theorem, the boat will have
travelled a total distance of 52 − 42 = 3 m.

Solution 3 Another way to solve the problem is to rephrase the question as follows: ”If the boat
moves exactly one metre, how far would the man have to move: more than one metre, less than one
metre, or exactly one metre?”
Let x represent the height of the pier, in metres, and assume that the boat starts 1 m from the base
of the pier. When the rope is pulled, the boat moves 1 m horizontally and touches the√pier. By
the Pythagoreanp
√ Theorem, the length of the rope from the pier to the boat starts out as x2 + 1 <
x + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)2 = x + 1 which is true for all x > 0.
2

Therefore, if the man moves less than one metre in order to move the boat exactly one metre, it follows
that if the man moves exactly one metre, the boat will move more than one metre.

3. Any number is larger than itself

We assumed that a = b + c which means that a − b − c = 0. However, on the last line, we divided both
sides by (a − b − c), which means that we were dividing by zero.

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4. Opposite Ends of the Earth
Suppose you label your starting point as 0◦ on your great circle, and as you travel around, this angle
increases until it reaches 360◦ when you are back at your original spot.

Assuming that change in temperature is continuous (no sudden jumps), the red graph gives a sample
graph of temperature vs. angle around the first half (0◦ − 180◦ ) of the great circle. Now we graph the
temperature vs. angle around the second half (180◦ − 360◦ ) of the great circle in green on the same
set of axes. We see that the starting temperature of the red graph must be the same as the ending
temperature of the green graph, and vice versa. As a result, the red and green graphs must intersect in
at least one location. At those locations, the two angles differ by exactly 180◦ , which proves that there
are always at least two antipodal points on the Earth’s surface that have exactly the same temperature
at any given moment.

5. Goldfish Removal
Solution 1 Let x represent the number of goldfish that need to be removed. Then the number of
goldfish remaining would be 200(0.99) − x = 198 − x and the total number of fish in the aquarium
would be 200 − x.

198 − x
= 0.98
200 − x
198 − x = 0.98(200 − x)
198 − x = 196 − 0.98x
198 − 196 = x − 0.98x
2 = 0.02x
100 = x

Therefore, you would need to take out 100 goldfish for the proportion of goldfish to drop from 99% to
98%!

Solution 2 Consider the non-goldfish in the aquarium. There were 200(0.01) = 2 non-goldfish in
the aquarium from the beginning. Since the number of non-goldfish does not change, the only way for
these 2 non-goldfish to make up 2% of the remaining fish is for the total number of fish to equal 100,
meaning that we would need to remove 100 goldfish.

22
 This problem has appeared in different forms, such as “A 200-pound prize pumpkin has 99% water
content. En route to the county fair, the pumpkin dehydrates to 98% water content. What is the
weight of the pumpkin for competition?” Do you find one version of the problem to be easier to un-
derstand than the other, or are they equally accessible?

6. The Pizza Paradox

(Rohrer, 1994) with modifications

Let R represent the radius of the larger circle, and let r represent the radius of the smaller circle.
By symmetry, the point of tangency of the smaller circle and the √ 10-inch line is the midpoint of
2 2 2
the line. By the Pythagorean
√ Theorem, R = r + 5 ⇒ R = r2 + 25. The area of the pizza
2 2
would be πR − πr = π( r + 25) − πr = π(r + 25) − πr = πr + 25π − πr2 = 25π, which is a
2 2 2 2 2 2

constant, regardless of the values of r and R! All pizzas with a 10-inch tangent line have the same area.

Instead, if you let the area of the hole be zero, so r = 0, then the line tangent to the hole would be the
diameter of the circle. Therefore the radius would be 5 inches and the area would be π(5)2 = 25π in2 .

Extension: Is there a maximum size of pizza that would give the required 10-inch chord? If a maximum
exists, determine it; otherwise, prove there is no limit.

7. 1 = 3?
When you square both sides of an equation, you may introduce extraneous solutions that do not sat-
isfy the original equation. For example, if we take the equation x = 10 and square both sides, we get
x2 = 100; both 10 and -10 satisfy this equation, but -10 does not satisfy the equation x = 10.

√
√ third line, √5 − x = 1 + 2 x + x could have come from squaring any of the four equations
The
± 5 − x = 1 ± x, so you must check each of the proposed values to ensure that it is a valid solution.

Extension: I have two coins in my pocket, and their combined value is 30 cents. One of the coins is
not a quarter. How can this be?

23
8. Minimum Distance
No matter where the house is built, the sum of the lengths of the three roads will be the same! This
constant sum is equal to the length of AG, the altitude in ∆ABC.
The area of ∆BP C is 12 (BC)(P D), the area of ∆AP B is 1
2 (AB)(P E), and the area of ∆AP C is
1
2 (AC)(P F ). Therefore:

area(∆ABC) = area(∆BP C) + area(∆AP B) + area(∆AP C)

1 1 1 1
(BC)(AG) = (BC)(P D) + (AB)(P E) + (AC)(P F )
2 2 2 2
1 1
(BC)(AG) = (BC)(P D + P E + P F ) (AB=BC=AC)
2 2
AG = PD + PE + PF

9. Squish!
Only one log will roll over the flatworm. The answer is the same regardless of the radius of the logs!

Since the logs are rolling beneath the flatcar, the distance travelled by the flatcar is double the dis-
tance travelled by the logs. (Try it with a book and some pop cans.) As the logs travel 10 feet, the
flatcar will travel 20 feet, as shown from figure A to B and B to C. From C to D, the front log lies 5
feet from the flatworm, but then the back log is placed in front of the flatworm and does not roll over
it. As the logs move another 10 feet from D to E, the flatworm gets crushed by a log, but then the
back log is removed and placed at the front, so only one log rolls over the flatworm.

Extension: If there are n equally spaced logs, how many logs will roll over the flatworm?

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 (Gardner, 1970) with modifications

10. The Ping Pong Puzzle

Since every game eliminates one player leaving only the winner, the total number of games required
is just one less than the total number of players, regardless of how many players there are in the
tournament!

Extensions:
a) How does the minimum number of byes in a single-elimination tournament relate to the number of
players?

The original problem statement includes a fallacy, whether by accident or design, as single-elimination
tournaments have byes only in the first round, never in later rounds. (There would be some upset
players if someone got a bye in the semi-finals!)
b) How many games are required in the first round (and therefore how many players receive a bye in
the first round) in order to ensure that the second and all later rounds have no byes?
c) Does the total number of games change when the tournament is properly scheduled in this manner?
d) How does the answer to a) change when the tournament is properly scheduled in this manner?

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11. Two-Mile Drive
1mi 1
If you travel 1 mile at a speed of 30 mph, it takes you 30mph = 30 h.
Let x represent the amount of time it takes to travel the second mile, in hours.

dtotal
vaverage =
ttotal
2mi
60mph = 1
30 h + x
 
1
60 +x = 2
30
2 + 60x = 2
60x = 0
x = 0

Therefore, you would have to travel the second mile in zero seconds which is impossible!

12. Simpson’s Paradox

Answers may vary. For example, if a = 1, b = 2, c = 1, d = 5, p = 3, q = 7, r = 1, and s = 6, we have
1 3 1 1 1+1 2 4 3+1
2 > 7 and 5 > 6 , but 2+5 = 7 < 13 = 7+6 . (Havil, 2008)

13. Grapefruit
All of the slices have the same surface area!

(Weisstein)

In the diagram above, by the Pythagorean Theorem, a2 + (R − h)2 = R2 . Using the hint:
A = π(a2 + h2 )
= π(R2 − (R − h)2 + h2 )
= π(R2 − (R2 − 2Rh + h2 ) + h2 )
= π(R2 − R2 + 2Rh − h2 + h2 )
= 2πRh

26
 The slices of grapefruit not at the caps are called spherical segments. The surface area of a spherical
segment is the difference between the surface areas of the two corresponding spherical caps. If the
heights of the two spherical caps are h1 and h2 , where h1 < h2 , then the surface area of the spherical
segment is 2πRh2 − 2πRh1 = 2πR(h2 − h1 ). However, we are told that each slice has the same thick-
ness, so 2πR(h2 − h1 ) = 2πRh, which is the same expression as above. Therefore, all slices have the
same surface area, and since the only requirement is that slices have the same height, this result is the
same if there are five slices or any whole number of slices!

14. Howlers

(a) Answers may vary. Using the hint, we could let the numerator be represented by the expression
10a + b and let the denominator be represented by the expression 10b + c; it would have to equal
the expression ac .

10a + b a
=
10b + c c
c(10a + b) = a(10b + c)
10ac + bc = 10ab + ac
9ac + bc = 10ab
10ab
c =
9a + b

Now choose integer values of a and b from 1 to 9 that would allow the integer value of c to lie
10ab
from 1 to 9. For example, if a = 2 and b = 6, c = 9a+b = 10(2)(6) 120
9(2)+6 = 24 = 5. This means our new
26 2
example would be 65 = 5 .

(b) i. (x + 4)2 = x2 + 8x + 42 6= x2 + 42
ii. (x + 36)2 = x2 + 72x + 362 6= x2 + 362
iii. 362 6= 336
iv. x2 + x2 = 2x2 6= x4
√
v. x4 = 320 ⇒ x = 4 80 6= 80

15. The Vanishing Square

The slope of the red triangle is 38 and the slope of the blue triangle is 52 , but 38 = 15 16 2
40 6= 40 = 5 . There-
fore, the large “triangles” are actually quadrilaterals. Since the slope of the blue triangle is slightly
greater than the red triangle, by switching the positions of the blue and red triangles, the bottom figure
gains a sliver of area along the diagonal equivalent to one square unit.

Extension: Create another diagram like the original, but choose dimensions that make the distortion
more obvious.

27
Part V
References
Bunch, B. H. (1982). Mathematical fallacies and paradoxes. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Gardner, M. (1970). Further mathematical diversions: The paradox of the unexpected hanging and others.
London: Allen & Unwin.

Gardner, M. (1978). Aha! Insight. New York, NY: Scientific American/Freeman.

Gardner, M. (1982). Aha!: Gotcha: Paradoxes to puzzle and delight. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman and
Company.

Gardner, M. (2008). Hexaflexagons, probability paradoxes, and the tower of Hanoi: Martin Gardner’s
first book of mathematical puzzles and games. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Havil, J. (2008). Impossible?: Surprising solutions to counterintuitive conundrums. Princeton, NJ:

Princeton University Press.

Maxwell, E. A. (1959). Fallacies in Mathematics. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Movshovitz-Hadar, N., & Webb, J. (1998). One equals zero and other mathematical surprises: Paradoxes,
fallacies, and mind bogglers. Berkeley, CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Puzzle Playground. (2003). Hole in the Sphere. Retrieved from

http://www.puzzles.com/puzzleplayground/holeinthesphere/holeinthesphereprintplay.pdf

Rohrer, D. (1993). Thought provokers. Berkeley, CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Rohrer, D. (1994). More thought provokers. Berkeley, CA: Key Curriculum Press.

Sharp, J. (2002). Fraudulent dissection puzzles: A tour of the mathematics of bamboozlement. Mathe-
matics in School, 31(4), 7-12.

Weisstein, Eric W. “Spherical Cap.” MathWorld–A Wolfram Web Resource. Retrieved from
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/SphericalCap.html

Whittemore, N. (1735). A mathematical miscellany in four parts I. An essay towards the probable so-
lution of the forty-five surprising paradoxes, in Gordon’s Geography. ... By a lover of the mathematicks.
Dublin: Printed by and for S. Fuller.

Wikipedia (2012). “Missing square puzzle.” Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missing square puzzle

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