Mathematical Measures

Mathematical Pleasures
Mathematical Treasures

By Stephen C. Clark
“Geometry has two great treasures: one is the theorem of Pythagoras: the
other, the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio. The first we may
compare to a measure of gold: the second we may name a precious jewel.”
Johannes Kepler
 Introduction

Math for the Ages is a company dedicated to bringing mathematics to

the world in a manner that does not stress drudgery. Many things are
learned serendipitously through our inspiration and delight and not subject
to direct instruction.

A knowledge of the basic fundamentals of Mathematics is critical to un-

derstanding the world in which we live. Math is at the center of modern
technology. Math is at the center of Philosophy. Math is at the center of
understanding statistics, economics, political science, physics, chemistry,
biology, indeed it lies at the center of a lot of what it means to be a human
being in the 21st century. It is a basic tool of understanding. It is a basic
tool of invention.

This is not a new phenomenon. Mathematical understanding and skill lie

at the heart of every great civilization in human history. All have contrib-
uted to the point at which we now find ourselves.

Do you know what a square root is. Can you explain the Pythagorean
Theorem? What is an irrational number? If you cannot easily answer
all of these questions then this book is for you. Or, even if you can, this
book will be a useful companion in revisiting these fundamental building
blocks.

This book is for people of all ages and abilities. It is an attempt to bring
mathematics and its sister discipline geometry to everyone in a simple and
deep manner. It takes the person at their point of understanding and joins
them in a leisurely stroll through some of the most basic and critical ele-
ments of mathematics. It is designed to be an entry point and guide to
everyone from young children at play to college math students struggling
to comprehend what may seem incomprehensible. It is for the elderly
who wish to understand and appreciate the beauty, integrity, and signifi-
cance of a subject that may have been a mystery to them their whole life.

This is the first book from Math for the Ages.

 Table of Contents

I. Number and Measure page 1

II. Squares and Square Roots page 3

III. Circular logic page 7

Circle Packs
The Circle and Pi
Degrees

IV. The Pythagorean Theorem page 15

The Pythagorean Theorem

1,1,√2
3,4,5
1,√3,2
The Draftsman’s Pair
1,2,√5

V. Phi, The extreme and mean ratio page 35

The Golden Section

The Golden Rectangle
The Golden Triangle
Fibonacci Sequence

VI. The Cut-outs page 39

Copyright Stephen C. Clark USA 2008

Number and Measure
I. The Number One
One of the great problems of mathematics is deciding where to start. All of
the ideas in math are related to each other and reinforce each other. In this

book we have decided to start with the number one, 1. The number one
itself is filled with subtle distinctions, even mysteries.

One can be a single thing.

One can be a combination of things.
One can be everything.

When we measure things, one is the thing to which we refer.

In our little book one, 1 refers to three different things.
The First thing is a line of one. It measures length. We use the English
inch as our unit of length.
The Second thing is a square with all of the sides being one, and in our
book this is one square inch. ( 1in² ) It measures area.
This is called squaring.
1 x 1 = 1 = 1²
The Third thing is one,1 the number. One, the
number doesn’t measure anything. It is just a number. Numbers are
abstract. They exist in our imagination. At times, one may not refer to
anything at all other than the number itself.. Even in this case it still has
rules and patterns though it does not refer to anything in the real-world.

1
Whole Numbers
All the numbers that are made of whole ones (1) are called whole numbers. These are
the counting numbers. In this little book we have the following whole numbers:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 12, 16, 25, and 49.

Fractions
Parts of whole numbers are called fractions.

Ratios
All whole numbers and fractions can be stated as a Ratio. A Ratio is when we com-
pare one number to another. We show a ratio by placing a line or a colon between the
two numbers like 1/3 or 1:3. It is just like division. 1/3 is the same as 1 divided by
3. All numbers can be listed as a ratio. The number 5 can be stated as a the ratio 5/1.
The fraction one half can be stated as the ratio 1/2.

Rational Numbers
When both the top (numerator), first and bottom (denominator), second number of a
number’s ratio are whole numbers, that number is called a rational number.

Irrational Numbers
When a number cannot be stated by a ratio of two whole numbers, then that number is
called an irrational number. (This does not mean the number is crazy) We use sym-
bols to designate these numbers.

In this book we will look at the irrational numbers √2 , √3 , √5 , π, and Φ.

Even though these numbers cannot be stated as a whole number ratio, they are criti-
cally important to all processes in math. If they seem Greek to you, they are.

2
 The Squares
Notice: 1² = 1 = √1 Squaring means
1 is called the multiplying a
Multiplicative Identity number by itself.

1² = 1x1 = 1
2² = 2x2 = 4
3² = 3x3 = 9
4² = 4x4 = 16
5² = 5x5 = 25
The number being
squared can be thought
of as the side of a
square. The result is
the number of 1x1
squares inside the lar-
ger square. You can
also work backwards.
If you know the num-
ber of 1x1 squares in
the larger square, you
can find the side. This
is known as the
3 square root. √
Thus we can
express each
of these
numbers as a
square root:
√1 = 1
√4 = 2
√9 = 3
√16 = 4
√25 = 5

4
 The Square Roots
Squared (√)²
√1
√1 x √1 =
√1 (√1)² = 1

√1 = 1

√2

√2 √2 x √2 =
(√2)² = 2

√2 ≈ 1.414...

√3

√3 x √3 =
√3 (√3)² = 3

√3 ≈ 1.732...
 √2, √3, √5 are all Irrational Numbers
√4

√4 x √4 =
√4 (√4)² = 4

√4 = 2

√5

√5 x √5 =
√5 (√5)² = 5

√5 ≈ 2.236...

≈ approximately equal
6
60° Circle Packs 60°

7
90° Circle Packs 90°
Circular Logic, Making Pi
At Math for the Ages almost everything begins
with the circle. It is the most elegant and
efficient of all nature’s forms.

The circle has two major parts, the Focus and

the Locus. The Focus is the point at the center.
The locus is the circle itself. The definition of
the circle is, the locus of points equal distance
from a single focus.

Focus Locus
9
The Circle has four main measures.
The Radius, the Diameter, the Circumference,
and the Area. The Radius is the distance from
the Focus to the Locus. The Diameter is the dis-
tance from a point on the circle to another point
on the circle that is directly opposite.

Radius = ½ Diameter = 1

Two Radii are equal to one Diameter 2R = D

The circumference is the distance around the
circle.

Circumference = Pi = π
π is an Irrational Number
π ≈ 3.14159265...
The Ratio of the Diameter to the Circumference
is Pi. If the Diameter is one, the circumference
is Pi or π. C = πD If D = 1 then C = π

Area = πR² = π(½)² = π/4 in²

10
Circular Logic, A Matter of Degrees

360°

180° 180°

360/2 = 180

11
 90° 90°

90° 90°

360/4 = 90

45° 45°

45° 45°

45° 45°

45° 45°
360/8 = 45

12
 60° 60°

60° 60°

60° 60°
360/6 = 60

30° 30°
30° 30°

30° 30°

30° 30°
30° 30°
30° 30°
360/12 = 30

13
 15° 15°
15° 15°
15° 15°
15° 15° The
15° 15° earth
15° 15°
is
15° 15°
divided into
15° 15°
360° and 24
time zones.
15° 15°
15° 15° Each time zone
15° 15°
15° 15° has 15 degrees.

360/24 = 15

The three angles of all triangles add up to 180°.

All of our triangles have one 90° angle.
The other two angles add up to 90°.
In our next chapter you will see why we
chose these triangles and how
they help us understand
the
Pythagorean Theorem.

14

14
The Pythagorean Theorem
As Kepler has told us, one of the great treasures of mathematics
is the Pythagorean Theorem. This theorem lies at the heart of
much of mathematics and is at the center of such basic func-
tions as squaring and taking square roots. Stated briefly, the
Pythagorean theorem tells us that in right triangles the square of
the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other
two sides. The hypotenuse is the side opposite the right angle,
the 90° angle.

a c a² + b² = c²

b
This means that the area of a square with sides of length a,
plus the area of a square with sides of length b, is equal to
the area of a square with sides of length c.

a² +
b² = c²

This is very important in

mathematics in general,
but especially in geometry and algebra.
If we know two of the sides we can
find the other side.

15
Our Triangles
The 3,4,5 Triangle

3² + 4² = c² 9 + 16 = c² 25 = c²
√c² = √25 c=5

3² + b² = 5² 9 + b² = 25 9 + b² - 9 = 25 - 9
b² = 16 √b² = √16 b=4

a² + 4² = 5² a² + 16 = 25 a² + 16 - 16 = 25 - 16
a² = 9 √a² = √9 a=3

The 1,1,√2 Triangle

1² + 1² = c² 1 + 1 = c² 2 = c² √c² = √2 c = √2

1² + b² = (√2)² 1 + b² = 2 1 + b² - 1 = 2 - 1 b² = 1
√ b² = √1 b=1

The 1,√3,2 Triangle

1² + b² = 2² 1 + b² = 4 1 + b² - 1 = 4 - 1 b² = 3
√ b² = √3 b = √3

1² + (√3)² = c² 1 + 3 = c² 4 = c² √4 = √c² 2=c

The 1,2,√5 Triangle

1² + 2² = c² 1 + 4 = c² 5 = c² √c² = √5 c = √5

16
The Pythagorean Theorem
The 1, 1, √2 Triangle
45°, 45°, 90°
Isosceles Right Triangle

1 √2

1
1² + 1² = √2²
1 + 1= 2

17
(√2)²
= 1²
+ 1²

=
18
 (√2)²
= 1²
+ 1²

=
With the help of eight of our triangles we can
make two squares that are of equal size. If we
take away the eight triangles we can see that
what we have left on one side is (√2)² and on
the other side 1² and 1². Thus (√2)² = 1² + 1²

19
The 1,1,√2 triangle
is unique in that it is
both a right triangle
and an isosceles tri-
angle. That means
that two of its sides
are equal. Because
of this it yields
many symmetries
that the other right
triangles do not. It
also has numerous
geometrical proofs
that the others do
not, like the last one
on this page. It is
very versatile in
making patterns that
repeat beautifully.
They are the basis
of many tiled
floors. You may be
walking on one
right now.

20
The Pythagorean Theorem
The 3, 4, 5 Triangle
The Rope Stretchers Triangle
 Pythagoras learned
about this triangle in
Egypt. It is the simplest
right triangle in which all three
sides are rational numbers. They
used a 12 unit rope, split into
segments of 3, 4, and 5, to
make sure their angles
were square, 90°.
 5 x 5 = 25

(5 x 5) = (4 x 4) + (3 x 3)
25 = 16 + 9
23
4 x 4 = 16

3x3=9

24
With the help of eight of our triangles
we can make two squares that are of
equal size.

25
If we take away the eight triangles we
can see that what we have left on one
side is 5² and on the other 2² + 3².
Thus 3² + 4² = 5²

26
The Pythagorean Theorem
The 1, √3, 2 Triangle
The 30°, 60°, 90° Triangle

1² + (√3)² = 2² √3 2
1 + 3 = 4

27
 1² + (√3)² = 2²

With the help of eight of our triangles we can make two

squares that are of equal size. If we take away the triangles
we can see that what we have left on one side is 1² and
(√3)² and on the other side 2². Thus 1² + (√3)² = 2².

28
29
 The Draftsman’s Pair
45°, 45°, 90° and 30°, 60°, 90°

You probably recognize these two triangles. You

might already own them. They are used in the area
of mechanical drawing also known as drafting.
This is a process used by engineers, architects and
artists who are creating drawings of their plans and
projects. They are often sold as a set along with the
T-square and drawing board. They can be pur-
chased cheaply at most stores that sell school and
office supplies. If you are interested in the proc-
ess of design, these tools are a good place to
start. They will help you to be clean and
precise in your drawing efforts.
30
The Pythagorean Theorem
1, 2, √5 Triangle
The Source of Phi

2 2 √5

1 1

1² + 2² = (√5)²
1 + 4 = 5

31
(√5)² = 2² + 1²

2² = =

(√5)² =

=
32

32
1²

= (√5)²
2²

With the help of eight of our triangles we can

make two squares that are of equal size. If we
take away the eight triangles we can see that
what we have left on one side is 1² and 2² and
on the other side (√5)². Thus 1² + 2² = (√5)²

33
Using six triangles and
our three squares we can
make this shape.

This gives us another demonstration of the

Pythagorean Theorem. Hint.

34
 Phi, Φ
The Extreme and Mean Ratio
A very important number in mathematics is Phi or Φ. It is
the number of the golden section. We get Φ by dividing a
line so that the ratio of the longer part to the shorter part is
the same as the ratio of the whole line to the longer part.
a b c

bc/ab = ac/bc = Φ ≈ 1.61

And ab/bc = bc/ac = 1/Φ = Φ - 1 ≈ .61
The formula for this number is (1 + √5)/2. If you noticed
these numbers are the sides of our 1, 2, √5 Triangle. Using
four of our triangles we can construct a Golden Rectangle

2 2
√5

1 1 1 √5
(1 + √5)/2 ≈ 1.6180339887...
Φ has some amazing properties.
ΦxΦ=Φ+1
1/Φ = Φ - 1
35
By using our 1x1 square we can construct
The Golden Rectangle Φ

1 1 1 1

1 ½ ½ ½ √5/2
We like this shape so much that we made it the
logo for our company Math for the Ages. You
can just keep putting triangles around it and all
of the rectangles that are constructed are
Golden Rectangles, including the one in the
middle.

36
Another place we encounter Φ is in the regular pentagon. A tri-
angle with one of the sides as its base and the other two sides to
the opposite point is called the Golden Triangle. Its base is 1
and the other two sides are Φ.

Φ Φ

We can attach 5
Golden Triangles
to the regular
pentagon and it
forms the
Pentagram.

We can cluster 10 Golden Tri-

angles around a central point
and it forms the
Decagon.
The angles of the Golden Tri-
angle are 72°, 72°, 36°
36 x 10 = 360

37
 And the most beautiful manifestation of Φ
1
1 The Fibonacci Sequence
This is a limit that approaches but never quite reaches Phi

2
3
5
8
13
21
34
55
89
144
The
Ratio
of the
Sides

Φ 38

38
 The pages that follow
are groups of the
shapes that we have
used in this book.
These pages are de-
signed to be cut out
or copied and used to
assemble the relation-
ships that we have
highlighted and to
create new patterns
like the one on this
page.

The book is also de-

signed to use Py-
thagorean blocks
made by Math for the
Ages. Readers can
overlay these blocks
on top of the pages of
the book or use the
book as a guide for
all the many possible
combinations and
permutations of
learning and mathe-
matical fun that these
shapes will yield.
Make your own
blocks by using the
39 cutouts and attaching
them to cardboard,
wood or other media.
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45