Single Body Collision Physics Model

Single Body Collision Physics Model
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Virtual CRASH
The Virtual CRASH Single Body Collision Physics Model
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The Virtual CRASH Single Body Collision Physics Model
Introduction
In this document, we present a derivation of the rigid body dynamics formulation used in the
Virtual CRASH brand accident reconstruction and physics simulation products. Like other
accident reconstruction software simulation packages, Virtual CRASH uses the momentum-based
Kudlich-Slibar model for its principal collision model for vehicle to vehicle impacts (see SAE
960886). This is a standard approach that has successfully be employed to study vehicle collisions
for decades. For completeness, we present a full treatment of the Virtual CRASH algorithm below.
Closing-Velocity at the Point-of-Contact
In order to derive the standard equations needed to describe rigid body dynamics, we first start by
defining the total velocity at any given point P on or within an extended object k. We obtain this
by first noting the position of P can be expresses as the vector sum:
𝑅̅𝑘𝑃 = 𝑅̅𝑘𝐶𝐺 + 𝑟̅𝑘𝑃 (1)
where 𝑅̅𝑘𝑃 is the Earth-frame location of P, 𝑅̅𝑘𝐶𝐺 is the object k center-of-gravity (CG), and 𝑟̅𝑘𝑃 is
the location of P measured with respect to the object’s CG. Let us now assume that while point P
may be free to rotate with respect to the CG, the magnitude of 𝑟̅𝑘𝑃 remains constant with time. In
this case, taking the time derivative of both sides above, we obtain the expression:
𝑣̅𝑘𝑃 = 𝑣̅𝑘𝐶𝐺 + 𝜔
̅𝑘 × 𝑟̅𝑘 (2)
where 𝑣̅𝑘𝐶𝐺 is the velocity at the center-of-gravity of object k. 𝜔

̅𝑘 is the angular velocity of object k
measured about its center-of-gravity, and 𝑟̅𝑘 is the position vector extending from object k’s CG to
point P.
Newton’s 2nd Law
We can express Newton’s 2nd Law in terms of its consequences to the momentum of an object.
That is, expressing the momentum of object k as the product of its mass and velocity:
𝑝̅𝑘 = 𝑚𝑘 𝑣̅𝑘 (3)
we have the total force on object k given by:
𝑑 𝑑
𝐹̅𝑘 = (𝑝̅𝑘 ) = (𝑚𝑘 𝑣̅𝑘 ) (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Newton’s 3rd Law
From Newton’s 3rd Law, we know that the forces exerted by two objects on one another are equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction. That is:
𝐹̅12 = −𝐹̅21 (5)
where 𝐹̅12 is the force on object 1 due to its interaction with object 2, and 𝐹̅21 is the force on object
2 due to its interaction with object 1.
Let us now express the total force on object 1 as the sum over the interaction force with object 2
and any other external forces:
𝑁
𝑑
𝐹̅1 = ̅𝑖
(𝑚 𝑣̅ ) = 𝐹̅12 + ∑ 𝑓1,𝑒𝑥𝑡 (6)
𝑑𝑡 1 1
𝑖=0
̅𝑖 are external forces acting on object 1 not attributable to object 2. Similarly for object
where 𝑓1,𝑒𝑥𝑡
2 we have:
𝑀
𝑑
̅𝑖
𝐹̅1 = (𝑚2 𝑣̅2 ) = −𝐹̅12 + ∑ 𝑓2,𝑒𝑥𝑡 (7)
𝑑𝑡
𝑖=0
Conservation of Linear Momentum
Let us now suppose that during the duration of interaction between objects 1 and 2, the magnitude
of the interaction forces greatly exceeds the total external forces on each object, such as during
motor vehicle collisions; in this case, we have:
𝑑
𝐹̅1 = (𝑚 𝑣̅ ) ≈ 𝐹̅12 (8)
𝑑𝑡 1 1
and
𝑑
𝐹̅2 = (𝑚 𝑣̅ ) ≈ −𝐹̅12 (9)
𝑑𝑡 2 2
Summing the total force on the system, we have:
𝑑 𝑑
𝐹̅1 + 𝐹̅2 = (𝑚1 𝑣̅1 ) + (𝑚2 𝑣̅2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
= (𝑚1 𝑣̅1 + 𝑚2 𝑣̅2 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
= (𝑝̅1 + 𝑝̅2 )
𝑑𝑡
≈ 𝐹̅12 − 𝐹̅12 = 0 (10)
or
𝑝̅1 + 𝑝̅2 ≈ constant (11)
This expression, of course, tells us that the sum of the linear momentum associated with objects 1
and 2 is conserved over the time in which external forces can be reasonably neglected. This is a
typical approximation used for vehicle collisions, which have very brief collision pulse widths,
with large associated contact forces exchanged between vehicles. Note, in the absence of any net
external forces equations (10) and (11) are exactly true. We will neglect the role of external forces
in the rest of this treatment.
We can now write an expression relating the pre-impact to post-impact sum over momenta. This
is given by:
𝑝̅1,𝑖 + 𝑝̅2,𝑖 = 𝑝̅1,𝑓 + 𝑝̅2,𝑓 (12)
or
𝑚1 𝑣̅1,𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣̅2,𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣̅1,𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣̅2,𝑓 (13)
Where the subscript i indicates that the values are obtained immediately prior to impact, and f
indicates the values are obtained immediately after impact. We can now rewrite equation (13) as:
𝑚1 ∙ (𝑣̅1,𝑓 − 𝑣̅1,𝑖 ) = −𝑚2 ∙ (𝑣̅2,𝑓 − 𝑣̅2,𝑖 ) (14)
or
𝑚1 ∙ ∆𝑣̅1 = −𝑚2 ∙ ∆𝑣̅2 (15)
Impulse
Let us define the total impulse imparted to object k by:
∆𝑡
𝐽𝑘̅ = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ∙ 𝐹̅𝑘 (16)
0
where 𝐹̅𝑘 is the total force acting on object k during the duration ∆𝑡. Using (4) we can rewrite this
as:
∆𝑡
𝑑
𝐽𝑘̅ = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ∙ [ (𝑚 𝑣̅ )] (17)
0 𝑑𝑡 𝑘 𝑘
which is simply:
𝐽𝑘̅ = 𝑚𝑘 ∙ (𝑣̅𝑘 (𝑡 = ∆𝑡) − 𝑣̅𝑘 (𝑡 = 0))

= 𝑚𝑘 ∙ ∆𝑣̅𝑘 = ∆𝑝̅𝑘 (18)
or
𝑝̅𝑘,𝑓 = 𝑝̅𝑘,𝑖 + 𝐽𝑘̅ (19)
This therefore implies:
𝐽𝑘̅
𝑣̅𝑘,𝑓 = 𝑣̅𝑘,𝑖 + (20)
𝑚𝑘
This is an expression of the impulse-momentum theorem.
Let us again assume that during the interaction period, the forces on each object are dominated by
their mutual contact interactions. In this case we have:
∆𝑡
𝐽1̅ = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ∙ 𝐹̅12 (21)
0
and
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝐽2̅ = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ∙ 𝐹̅21 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ∙ 𝐹̅12 (22)
0 0
and therefore:
𝐽1̅ = −𝐽2̅ (23)
Torque
We can write an expression for the total torque on object k caused by the application of force 𝐹̅𝑘 :
Γ̅𝑘 = 𝐼𝑘 𝛼̅𝑘 = 𝑟̅𝑘 × 𝐹̅𝑘 (24)
where 𝛼̅𝑘 = 𝑑𝜔 ̅𝑘 /𝑑𝑡 is the angular acceleration about the center-of-gravity of object k, and 𝑟̅𝑘 is
the lever-arm extending from the center-of-gravity to the point of contact, and 𝐼𝑘 is the moment-
of-inertia for rotation about the Γ̂𝑘 axis.
Taking the time integral of the total torque over interaction duration ∆𝑡, we have:
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑡 ∙ Γ̅𝑘 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ∙ (𝐼𝑘 𝛼̅𝑘 )
0 0
∆𝑡
𝑑𝜔̅𝑘
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ∙ [𝐼𝑘 ]
0 𝑑𝑡
̅𝑘 = ∆𝐿̅𝑘
= 𝐼𝑘 ∆𝜔 (25)
Therefore the torque delivered over time ∆𝑡 is associated with a change in angular momentum
∆𝐿̅𝑘 , where the angular momentum is given by 𝐿̅𝑘 = 𝐼𝑘 𝜔
̅𝑘 .
Therefore from (18) and (25), we have:
∆𝑡
∆𝐿̅𝑘 = 𝐼𝑘 ∆𝜔
̅𝑘 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ∙ (𝑟̅𝑘 × 𝐹̅𝑘 )
0
∆𝑡
= 𝑟̅𝑘 × ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ∙ 𝐹̅𝑘
0
= 𝑟̅𝑘 × ∆𝑝̅𝑘
= 𝑟̅𝑘 × 𝐽𝑘̅ (26)
From this, we have:
𝑟̅𝑘 × ∆𝑝̅𝑘
𝜔
̅𝑓 = 𝜔
̅𝑖 +
𝐼𝑘
𝑟̅𝑘 × 𝐽𝑘̅
=𝜔
̅𝑖 + (27)
𝐼𝑘
Returning now to equation (2), we have for the post-impact velocity at the point of contact P:
𝑃 𝐶𝐺
𝑣̅𝑘,𝑓 = 𝑣̅𝑘,𝑓 +𝜔
̅𝑘,𝑓 × 𝑟̅𝑘 (28)
Using (20) and (27), (28) becomes:
𝑃 𝐽𝑘̅ 𝑟̅𝑘 × ∆𝑝̅𝑘

𝑣̅𝑘,𝑓 = (𝑣̅𝑘,𝑖 + ) + (𝜔 ̅𝑖 + ) × 𝑟̅𝑘
𝑚𝑘 𝐼𝑘
𝐽𝑘̅ 𝑟̅𝑘 × 𝐽̅ 𝑘
= (𝑣̅𝑘,𝑖 + 𝜔
̅𝑖 × 𝑟̅𝑘 ) + +( ) × 𝑟̅𝑘
𝑚𝑘 𝐼𝑘
𝑃 𝐽𝑘̅ 𝑟̅𝑘 × 𝐽̅ 𝑘 × 𝑟̅𝑘
= 𝑣̅𝑘,𝑖 + +( ) (29)
𝑚𝑘 𝐼𝑘
where we use the triple vector product which we write as 𝑟̅𝑘 × 𝐽𝑘̅ × 𝑟̅𝑘 . This is given by:
𝑟̅𝑘 × 𝐽𝑘̅ × 𝑟̅𝑘 ≡ (𝑟̅𝑘 × 𝐽𝑘̅ ) × 𝑟̅𝑘 = 𝑟̅𝑘 × (𝐽𝑘̅ × 𝑟̅𝑘 )

= 𝐽𝑘̅ (| 𝑟̅𝑘 |2 ) − 𝑟̅𝑘 (𝑟̅𝑘 ∙ 𝐽𝑘̅ ) (30)
Therefore for object 1, we have:
𝐽̅1 𝑟̅1 × 𝐽̅1 × 𝑟̅1

̅ 𝑃1,𝑓 = 𝑣̅𝑃1,𝑖 +
𝑣 +( ) (31)
𝑚1 𝐼1
Similarly for object 2, we have:
𝐽̅2 𝑟̅2 × 𝐽̅2 × 𝑟̅2

̅ 𝑃2,𝑓 = 𝑣̅𝑃2,𝑖 +
𝑣 +( ) (32)
𝑚2 𝐼2
Taking the difference between equations (31) and (32), and using (23), we have the final relative
velocity vector (separation velocity) at point P:
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑓 = 𝑣̅1,𝑓 − 𝑣̅2,𝑓
𝑃
𝐽1̅ 𝑟̅1 × 𝐽1̅ × 𝑟̅1 𝑃
𝐽2̅ 𝑟̅2 × 𝐽2̅ × 𝑟̅2
= [𝑣̅1,𝑖 + +( )] − [𝑣̅2,𝑖 + +( )]
𝑚1 𝐼1 𝑚2 𝐼2
1 1 𝑟̅1 × 𝐽1̅ × 𝑟̅1 𝑟̅2 × 𝐽1̅ × 𝑟̅2
𝑃
= (𝑣̅1,𝑖 𝑃
− 𝑣̅2,𝑖 ) + 𝐽1̅ ( + )+( + )
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝑃
𝐽1̅ 𝑟̅1 × 𝐽1̅ × 𝑟̅1 𝑟̅2 × 𝐽1̅ × 𝑟̅2
= 𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 + +( + ) (33)
𝑚̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2
where we use the reduced mass given by:
1 1 −1
𝑚
̅ =( + ) (34)
𝑚1 𝑚2
Let us suppose we can model the impulse on object as being caused by effects along the normal
axis, 𝑛̂, generally associated with the direction along which material compresses during contact,
and the axis tangent to 𝑛̂, 𝑡̂, which is given by:
𝑃
𝑡̂ = (𝑣̂𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 × 𝑛̂) × 𝑛̂ (35)
Thus, 𝑡̂, is contained in the plane orthogonal to 𝑛̂, and whose direction is fixed to point antiparallel to the
projection of the closing-velocity vector on this plane. The impulse component along 𝑡̂ is generally
associated with frictional effects, and is related to the impulse component along 𝑛̂ by:
𝐽 ̅ ∙ 𝑡̂
𝜇= (36)
𝐽 ̅ ∙ 𝑛̂
where 𝜇 is identified with the coefficient-of-friction between the two objects undergoing contact
interaction.
Let us define the coefficient-of-restitution as:
𝑃
𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑓 ∙ 𝑛̂
𝜀=− 𝑃 (37)
𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑛̂
With this definition, we can now rewrite (33) after projecting both sides onto the normal axis 𝑛̂:
𝑃
𝐽1̅ ∙ 𝑛̂ 𝑟̅1 × 𝐽1̅ × 𝑟̅1 𝑟̅2 × 𝐽1̅ × 𝑟̅2
−(1 + 𝜀) ∙ 𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑛̂ = +( + ) ∙ 𝑛̂
𝑚̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝐽̂1 𝑟̅1 × 𝐽̂1 × 𝑟̅1 𝑟̅2 × 𝐽̂1 × 𝑟̅2
= |𝐽1̅ | ( + + ) ∙ 𝑛̂ (38)
𝑚̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2
We can finally solve for the magnitude of the impulse on object 1 by:
𝑃
−(1 + 𝜀) ∙ 𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑛̂
|𝐽1̅ | =
𝐽̂1 𝑟̅1 × 𝐽̂1 × 𝑟̅1 𝑟̅2 × 𝐽̂1 × 𝑟̅2 (39)
(𝑚̅+ + ) ∙ 𝑛̂
𝐼1 𝐼2
Let us now fix the orientation of the normal axis to point parallel with the normal component of
the impulse on object 1, and antiparallel with the normal component of the impulse on object 2.
We can now express the impulse on object 1 in the vector form:
|𝐽1̅ |(𝑛̂ + 𝜇𝑡̂)

𝐽1̅ = (40)
√1 + 𝜇 2
The unit vector 𝐽̂1 is given by:
(𝑛̂ + 𝜇𝑡̂)
𝐽̂1 = (41)
√1 + 𝜇 2
where
1
𝐽̂1 ∙ 𝑛̂ = (42)
√1 + 𝜇 2
and
𝜇
𝐽̂1 ∙ 𝑡̂ = (43)
√1 + 𝜇 2
Again, the triple vector products can be expressed by:
𝑟̅1 × 𝐽̂1 × 𝑟̅1 = 𝐽̂1 (| 𝑟̅1 |2 ) − 𝑟̅1 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝐽̂1 ) (44)
and
𝑟̅2 × 𝐽̂1 × 𝑟̅2 = 𝐽̂1 (| 𝑟̅2 |2 ) − 𝑟̅2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝐽̂1 ) (45)
Therefore, using (42), (44), and (45), we can rewrite (39) as:
𝑃
−(1 + 𝜀) ∙ 𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑛̂
|𝐽1̅ | =
𝐽̂1 𝐽̂1 (| 𝑟̅1 |2 ) − 𝑟̅1 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝐽̂1 ) 𝐽̂1 (| 𝑟̅2 |2 ) − 𝑟̅2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝐽̂1 )
(𝑚 ̅+ + ) ∙ 𝑛̂
𝐼1 𝐼2
𝑃
−(1 + 𝜀) ∙ 𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑛̂
=
1 | 𝑟̅1 |2 | 𝑟̅2 |2 𝑟̅1 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝐽̂1 ) 𝑟̅2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝐽̂1 )
(𝐽̂1 ∙ 𝑛̂) (𝑚 + + ) − ( + ) ∙ 𝑛̂
̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝑃
−(1 + 𝜀) ∙ (𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑛̂) ∙ √1 + 𝜇 2
=
1 | 𝑟̅ |2 | 𝑟̅ |2 (𝑟̅ ∙ 𝑛̂)(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝐽̂1 ) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝐽̂1 ) (46)
( + 1 + 2 ) − √1 + 𝜇 2 ( 1 + )
𝑚
̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐼2
We can express the moment-arms in vector form by:
𝑟̅1 = (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂)𝑛̂ + (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂)𝑡̂ (47)
and
𝑟̅2 = (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)𝑛̂ + (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂)𝑡̂ (48)
Therefore the inner products in (46) are:
(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂) + 𝜇(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂)

𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝐽̂1 = (49)
√1 + 𝜇 2
and
(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂) + 𝜇(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂)

𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝐽̂1 = (50)
√1 + 𝜇 2
We can now simply (46) by:
|𝐽1̅ | = −(1 + 𝜀) ∙ (𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖

𝑃
∙ 𝑛̂)√1 + 𝜇 2
1 | 𝑟̅1 |2 | 𝑟̅2 |2 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂)((𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂) + 𝜇(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂)) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)((𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂) + 𝜇(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂))
/ {( + + )−( + )}
𝑚
̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝑃
−(1 + 𝜀) ∙ (𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑛̂) ∙ √1 + 𝜇 2
=
1 | 𝑟̅ |2 | 𝑟̅ |2 (𝑟̅ ∙ 𝑛̂)2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)2 (𝑟̅ ∙ 𝑛̂)(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂)
( + 1 + 2 )−( 1 + )−𝜇( 1 + )
𝑚̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝑃
−(1 + 𝜀) ∙ (𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑛̂) ∙ √1 + 𝜇 2
= (51)
1 (𝑟̅ ∙ 𝑡̂)2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂)2 (𝑟̅ ∙ 𝑛̂)(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂)
( + 1 + )−𝜇( 1 + )
𝑚̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐼2
where we have our primary results for object 1:
−(𝟏 + 𝜺) ∙ (𝒗 ̅𝑷𝑹𝒆𝒍,𝒊 ∙ 𝒏
̂)
𝑱̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒏
̂ = (52)
𝟏 (𝒓̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒕̂) 𝟐 (𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒕̂) 𝟐 ̂ )(𝒓̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒕̂) (𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒏
(𝒓̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒏 ̂ )(𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒕̂)
(𝒎
̅ + + ) − 𝝁 ( + )
𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
−𝝁 ∙ (𝟏 + 𝜺) ∙ (𝒗 ̅𝑷𝑹𝒆𝒍,𝒊 ∙ 𝒏
̂)
𝑱̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒕̂ = (53)
𝟏 (𝒓̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒕̂)𝟐 (𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒕̂)𝟐 ̂ )(𝒓̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒕̂) (𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒏
(𝒓̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒏 ̂ )(𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒕̂)
(𝒎
̅ + + ) − 𝝁 ( + )
𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
For object 2 we have:
̅𝑷𝑹𝒆𝒍,𝒊 ∙ 𝒏
(𝟏 + 𝜺) ∙ (𝒗 ̂)
𝑱̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒏
̂ = (54)
𝟏 (𝒓̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒕̂)𝟐 (𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒕̂)𝟐 ̂ )(𝒓̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒕̂) (𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒏
(𝒓̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒏 ̂ )(𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒕̂)
(𝒎
̅ + + ) − 𝝁 ( + )
𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
̅𝑷𝑹𝒆𝒍,𝒊 ∙ 𝒏
𝝁 ∙ (𝟏 + 𝜺) ∙ (𝒗 ̂)
𝑱̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒕̂ = (55)
𝟏 (𝒓̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒕̂)𝟐 (𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒕̂)𝟐 ̂ )(𝒓̅ ∙ 𝒕̂) (𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒏
(𝒓̅ ∙ 𝒏 ̂ )(𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒕̂)
(𝒎
̅ + 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰 ) − 𝝁( 𝟏 𝑰 𝟏 + )
𝟐 𝟏 𝑰𝟐
Thus, once the normal axis, 𝜇, moment-arms, and the closing-velocity vector are known,
everything else can be determined. Virtual CRASH uses the vehicle geometry to determine the
geometrical parameters such as the normal axis direction, whereas the user supplies 𝜀 and the
maximum preferred 𝜇.
Common Velocity Along 𝒕̂
During the compression phase, care is taken to ensure that the relative velocity along the tangent
axis is not effectively accelerated by dissipative frictional forces beyond the point where the
surfaces of contact reach common velocity along 𝑡̂; therefore, in Virtual CRASH the maximum
allowed values of 𝐽1̅ ∙ 𝑡̂ and 𝐽2̅ ∙ 𝑡̂ are found to protect against this possibility. Here we derive the
procedure.
Let us rewrite (33) as:
1 | 𝑟̅1 |2 | 𝑟̅2 |2 𝑟̅1 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝐽1̅ ) 𝑟̅2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝐽1̅ )

𝑃
𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑓 𝑃
− 𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 = 𝐽1̅ ( + + )−( + ) (56)
𝑚
̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐼2
Projecting this on 𝑡̂ gives:
1 | 𝑟̅1 |2 | 𝑟̅2 |2 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝐽1̅ ) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝐽1̅ )

𝑃
(𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑓 𝑃
− 𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ) ∙ 𝑡̂ = (𝐽1̅ ∙ 𝑡̂ ) ( + + )−( + )
𝑚
̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐼2
1 | 𝑟̅1 |2 | 𝑟̅2 |2 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂ )((𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂) + 𝜇(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂)) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂ )((𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂) + 𝜇(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂))
= (𝐽1̅ ∙ 𝑡̂ ) ( + + ) − |𝐽1̅ | ( + )
𝑚
̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼1 √1 + 𝜇 2 𝐼2 √1 + 𝜇 2
|𝐽1̅ |𝜇 1 | 𝑟̅1 |2 | 𝑟̅2 |2
=( )( + + )
√1 + 𝜇 2 𝑚̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2
|𝐽1̅ | (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂) (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂)2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂)2
− [ + +𝜇( + )]
√1 + 𝜇 2 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝜇|𝐽1̅ | 1 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂)2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)2 |𝐽1̅ | (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)
=( )( + + )− [ + ] (57)
√1 + 𝜇 2 𝑚̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2 √1 + 𝜇 2 𝐼1 𝐼2
We can now solve for the value of 𝜇̃ that will satisfy the common tangential velocity condition at
point P:
𝑃
𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑓 ∙ 𝑡̂ = 0 (58)
This is given by:
𝑃
̃|𝐽1̅ |
𝜇 1 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂)2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)2
− 𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑡̂ = ( + + )
𝑚
̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2
√ ̃2
( 1+𝜇 ) (59)
|𝐽1̅ | (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)
− [ + ]
2 𝐼1 𝐼2
√1 + 𝜇 ̃
Simplifying this gives:
𝑃
(− 𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ̃2
∙ 𝑡̂)√1 + 𝜇 1 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂)2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)2 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)
=𝜇
̃( + + )−[ + ]
|𝐽1̅ | 𝑚
̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐼2
1 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂)2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂)2 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂)(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂)
(𝑚
̅ + 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) − 𝜇̃ ( 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )
= 𝑃 𝑃
−(1 + 𝜀) ∙ (𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑛̂)/(− 𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑡̂)
2 2 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)
1 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)
=𝜇̃( + + )−[ + ] (60)
𝑚̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼1 𝐼2
which gives:
1 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂)2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂)2

(𝑚
̅ + 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)
𝑃 𝑃
+ [ + ]
(1 + 𝜀) ∙ (𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑛̂)/( 𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑡̂) 𝐼1 𝐼2
(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂)(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂) (61)
1 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂) 2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂) 2 +
𝐼1 𝐼2
= 𝜇̃ [ + + + 𝑃 𝑃
]
𝑚̅ 𝐼1 𝐼2 (1 + 𝜀) ∙ (𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑛̂)/( 𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑡̂)
Finally, setting 𝜀 = 0 to evaluate our expression at the end of compression (just before restitution),
and solving for 𝜇̃ and simplifying, we have:
(𝒓̅ ∙ 𝒕̂ )(𝒓̅ ∙ 𝒏
̂ ) (𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒕̂ )(𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒏
̂) ̅𝑷𝑹𝒆𝒍,𝒊 ∙ 𝒕̂
𝒗 𝟏 (𝒓̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒕̂)𝟐 (𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒕̂)𝟐
( 𝟏 𝑰 𝟏 + ) + ( ) ∙ ( ̅ + 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰 )
𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒗 𝑷
̅𝑹𝒆𝒍,𝒊 ∙ 𝒏̂ 𝒎 𝟐 (62)
𝝁
̃=
𝟏 (𝒓̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒏 ̂ )𝟐 (𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒏
̂ )𝟐 ̅𝑷𝑹𝒆𝒍,𝒊 ∙ 𝒕̂
𝒗 (𝒓̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒏̂ )(𝒓̅𝟏 ∙ 𝒕̂) (𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒏
̂ )(𝒓̅𝟐 ∙ 𝒕̂)
(𝒎
̅ + + ) + ( ) ∙ ( + )
𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒗 𝑷
̅𝑹𝒆𝒍,𝒊 ∙ 𝒏̂ 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
In general, the sign of 𝜇 is set such that
𝑃
𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑡̂
sign(𝜇) = sign ( 𝑃 ) (63)
𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖 ∙ 𝑛̂
This ensures that the magnitude of the tangent relative-velocity can only be reduced in value by
friction, with maximum changes resulting in common velocity along the tangent axis direction at
the end of compression.
Therefore during compression the impulse along the tangent axis direction is bounded by the
condition:
|𝐽 ̅ ∙ 𝑡̂| ≤ |𝜇̃(𝐽 ̅ ∙ 𝑛̂)| (64)
In Virtual CRASH, the user defines the preferred coefficient-of-friction used by the collision
model. Each collision is checked against this condition to ensure the tangent impulse is properly
bounded. For a given value of 𝜇 specified by the user, Virtual CRASH will display “friction cones”
about the collision point in order to illustrate the volume in which the impulse vectors, 𝐽,̅ must be
contained for each object. The size of the cone is determined by the user’s choice of 𝜇; however,
the effective cone may actually be smaller in order to satisfy equation (64).

Single Body Collision Physics Model

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Single Body Collision Physics Model

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Single Body Collision Physics Model

© 2015 vCRASH, Americas, Inc. All Rights Reserved

The Virtual CRASH Single Body Collision Physics Model

𝑅̅𝑘𝑃 = 𝑅̅𝑘𝐶𝐺 + 𝑟̅𝑘𝑃 (1)

where 𝑣̅𝑘𝐶𝐺 is the velocity at the center-of-gravity of object k. 𝜔

Newton’s 2nd Law

𝑝̅𝑘 = 𝑚𝑘 𝑣̅𝑘 (3)

we have the total force on object k given by:

Newton’s 3rd Law

𝐹̅12 = −𝐹̅21 (5)

Conservation of Linear Momentum

Summing the total force on the system, we have:

𝑝̅1 + 𝑝̅2 ≈ constant (11)

𝑝̅1,𝑖 + 𝑝̅2,𝑖 = 𝑝̅1,𝑓 + 𝑝̅2,𝑓 (12)

𝑚1 𝑣̅1,𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣̅2,𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣̅1,𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣̅2,𝑓 (13)

𝑚1 ∙ (𝑣̅1,𝑓 − 𝑣̅1,𝑖 ) = −𝑚2 ∙ (𝑣̅2,𝑓 − 𝑣̅2,𝑖 ) (14)

𝑚1 ∙ ∆𝑣̅1 = −𝑚2 ∙ ∆𝑣̅2 (15)

Let us define the total impulse imparted to object k by:

𝐽𝑘̅ = 𝑚𝑘 ∙ (𝑣̅𝑘 (𝑡 = ∆𝑡) − 𝑣̅𝑘 (𝑡 = 0))

This therefore implies:

This is an expression of the impulse-momentum theorem.

𝐽1̅ = −𝐽2̅ (23)

Γ̅𝑘 = 𝐼𝑘 𝛼̅𝑘 = 𝑟̅𝑘 × 𝐹̅𝑘 (24)

Therefore from (18) and (25), we have:

From this, we have:

Using (20) and (27), (28) becomes:

𝑃 𝐽𝑘̅ 𝑟̅𝑘 × ∆𝑝̅𝑘

𝑟̅𝑘 × 𝐽𝑘̅ × 𝑟̅𝑘 ≡ (𝑟̅𝑘 × 𝐽𝑘̅ ) × 𝑟̅𝑘 = 𝑟̅𝑘 × (𝐽𝑘̅ × 𝑟̅𝑘 )

Therefore for object 1, we have:

𝐽̅1 𝑟̅1 × 𝐽̅1 × 𝑟̅1

Similarly for object 2, we have:

𝐽̅2 𝑟̅2 × 𝐽̅2 × 𝑟̅2

where we use the reduced mass given by:

Let us define the coefficient-of-restitution as:

We can now express the impulse on object 1 in the vector form:

|𝐽1̅ |(𝑛̂ + 𝜇𝑡̂)

The unit vector 𝐽̂1 is given by:

Again, the triple vector products can be expressed by:

𝑟̅1 × 𝐽̂1 × 𝑟̅1 = 𝐽̂1 (| 𝑟̅1 |2 ) − 𝑟̅1 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝐽̂1 ) (44)

𝑟̅2 × 𝐽̂1 × 𝑟̅2 = 𝐽̂1 (| 𝑟̅2 |2 ) − 𝑟̅2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝐽̂1 ) (45)

We can express the moment-arms in vector form by:

𝑟̅1 = (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂)𝑛̂ + (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂)𝑡̂ (47)

𝑟̅2 = (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂)𝑛̂ + (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂)𝑡̂ (48)

Therefore the inner products in (46) are:

(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑛̂) + 𝜇(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂)

(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑛̂) + 𝜇(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂)

We can now simply (46) by:

|𝐽1̅ | = −(1 + 𝜀) ∙ (𝑣̅𝑅𝑒𝑙,𝑖

where we have our primary results for object 1:

For object 2 we have:

Common Velocity Along 𝒕̂

Let us rewrite (33) as:

1 | 𝑟̅1 |2 | 𝑟̅2 |2 𝑟̅1 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝐽1̅ ) 𝑟̅2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝐽1̅ )

Projecting this on 𝑡̂ gives:

1 | 𝑟̅1 |2 | 𝑟̅2 |2 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝐽1̅ ) (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂ )(𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝐽1̅ )

This is given by:

Simplifying this gives:

1 (𝑟̅1 ∙ 𝑡̂)2 (𝑟̅2 ∙ 𝑡̂)2

In general, the sign of 𝜇 is set such that

|𝐽 ̅ ∙ 𝑡̂| ≤ |𝜇̃(𝐽 ̅ ∙ 𝑛̂)| (64)

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